Not only has gang membership been expanding, but the formation of cooperative ties with Mexican drug trafficking organizations (MDTOs) has been increasing as well. Collaborative relationships with MDTOs appear to be the driving force behind the continuing gang expansion and its subsequent effects. Using social network analysis, this study examines the linkage between MDTOs and American-based gang activity and the potential influence that MDTOs may have in U.S. drug market through their associations with American street gangs. Findings show the MDTOs to be extensively linked to each other by their affiliations with U.S. gangs, and a high level of connectivity exists between U.S. gangs and MDTOs. In addition, various centrality measures indicate the Sinaloa Cartel to have the broadest reach into the illicit drug market, as this cartel is affiliated with the highest number of gangs. The current study provides support for the continuance of multijurisdictional collaboration, and reaffirms the need for law enforcement to continue to explore the non-traditional approaches to crime and intelligence analysis.

<p>The objective of the thesis is to study how contacts/relationships are established in prison, and whether this is of significance for co-offending. A further objective is that of studying co-offending among individuals classified as gang members. Data have been collected from the Register of Suspected Offenders for all individuals released from Swedish prisons over a period of six months (n=3,930). Data have also been collected for individuals deemed by prison service officials to be members of various gangs (n=1,310). Twelve individuals (four women and eight men) with experience of serving time in prison have been interviewed. </p><p>The results of the register study show that it is uncommon for individuals who have spent time together at the same prison to be suspected of committing offences together subsequent to release. This was the case for two percent of the entire study population and three percent of the gang members. The co-offending of different gangs has also been studied by means of network analysis. There are substantial variations between different gangs as regards the proportion of suspected offences involving gang members and other individuals respectively, as reflected in both direct and indirect links. The interview study shows that there are different reasons for wanting to establish contacts/relationships with others. For some the intention is to maintain contacts of value for future crimes. A number of different reasons emerged however for why such contacts are discontinued. Inmates return to their old friends, they are re-arrested, women find themselves back in the worlds of men, a long time may pass between the individuals’ respective release dates, they may live a long way apart or drug use, leading to the breakdown of contacts as a result. </p><p>The theoretical framework employed in the thesis proceeds from social exchange theory. For co-offending to take place subsequent to release from prison, the contact/relationship established in prison must be worth something. Trust, contacts with other criminals, the size of an individual’s criminal network, and criminal capital are all relevant in this context. </p>

The objective of the thesis is to study how contacts/relationships are established in prison, and whether this is of significance for co-offending. A further objective is that of studying co-offending among individuals classified as gang members. Data have been collected from the Register of Suspected Offenders for all individuals released from Swedish prisons over a period of six months (n=3,930). Data have also been collected for individuals deemed by prison service officials to be members of various gangs (n=1,310). Twelve individuals (four women and eight men) with experience of serving time in prison have been interviewed. The results of the register study show that it is uncommon for individuals who have spent time together at the same prison to be suspected of committing offences together subsequent to release. This was the case for two percent of the entire study population and three percent of the gang members. The co-offending of different gangs has also been studied by means of network analysis. There are substantial variations between different gangs as regards the proportion of suspected offences involving gang members and other individuals respectively, as reflected in both direct and indirect links. The interview study shows that there are different reasons for wanting to establish contacts/relationships with others. For some the intention is to maintain contacts of value for future crimes. A number of different reasons emerged however for why such contacts are discontinued. Inmates return to their old friends, they are re-arrested, women find themselves back in the worlds of men, a long time may pass between the individuals’ respective release dates, they may live a long way apart or drug use, leading to the breakdown of contacts as a result. The theoretical framework employed in the thesis proceeds from social exchange theory. For co-offending to take place subsequent to release from prison, the contact/relationship established in prison must be worth something. Trust, contacts with other criminals, the size of an individual’s criminal network, and criminal capital are all relevant in this context.

The present research was archival in nature. It was divided into three phases involving a comprehensive psychometric examination of a newly developed risk assessment measure designed to assess risk for sexual violence, guide treatment planning, assess readiness to change, and evaluate whether positive changes in risk are linked to reductions in recidivism risk among sexually offending youth–the Violence Risk Scale: Youth Sexual Offender version (VRS:YSO). Phase I focused on an examination of the basic psychometric properties of a young offender version of the Violence Risk Scale–Sexual Offender Version (VRS–SO; Wong et al., 2003), subsequently referred to as the VRS:YSO. The tool revision was based on a thorough review of the literature on male youth and adults who have sexually offended and selected readings on youth violence, as well as a review of a measure designed to assess risk for violence among violent youth (i.e., the VRS:YV). The developers of the VRS–SO completed the structural revisions to the tool. The resulting risk assessment measure included six static and 17 dynamic risk variables that are empirically and/or theoretically associated with an increased risk for sexual violence among youth. As part of its initial psychometric examination, the VRS:YSO was rated retrospectively from the comprehensive files of 99 male sexually offending youth who had received outpatient sex offender services (i.e., assessment and/or treatment) from the Saskatoon Health Region, Child and Youth Services (CYS)–Young Offender Program (YOP) from 1995 to 2008. Overall, the VRS:YSO showed good-to-excellent interrater reliability, sound item properties (i.e., internal consistency and item-total correlations), and a factor structure that is consistent with research on sexually offending youth and adults, as well as other measures designed to assess risk for sexual violence in youth. Phase II focused on the validation of the VRS:YSO through examining the concurrent, postdictive, predictive, and incremental validity of the measure. Moreover, the psychometric properties of existing specialized risk assessment measures (i.e., J-SOAP-II, ERASOR, and J-SORRAT-II) were examined to inform the limited, albeit growing, literature on risk assessment with sexually offending youth. All measures were rated from the same comprehensive youth files as in Phase I. Youth were followed-up for an average of 11.83 years (SD = 3.42, range = 3.89-17.41) starting from their first contact with the community post-adjudication (i.e., release from custody or commencement of a community sentence). Overall reconviction rates were 8% for sexual, 24% for any violent (sexual and nonsexual), and 37% for general (any) offending. In sum, there was good preliminary evidence for the concurrent and, to some extent, postdictive validity of the VRS:YSO. Furthermore, there was good evidence for the predictive validity of the measure, particularly with respect to any violence (sexual and nonsexual) and general (any) recidivism. There was also encouraging evidence, albeit offset seemingly by a small post-treatment N and thus restricted power, on the potential value of the therapeutic change score in the prediction of recidivism risk. These findings supported the value of the VRS:YSO as a new specialized risk assessment measure for sexually offending youth, particularly as it uniquely includes a systematic rubric for assessing change. Moreover, there was good evidence for the predictive validity of the J-SORRAT-II and certain components of the J-SOAP-II for sexual recidivism. There was also good evidence for the predictive validity of the J-SOAP-II and the ERASOR for violent (sexual and nonsexual) and general (any) recidivism. Lastly, Phase III examined the role of psychopathy-related personality features (as measured by the PCL:YV) in the criminal and treatment outcomes of youth who have sexually offended. The PCL:YV was rated from the same comprehensive youth files (in conjunction with the other measures referenced above). Overall, the PCL:YV significantly predicted violent (sexual and nonsexual) and general (any) reoffending, particularly among offenders with any peer/adult victims, but not sexual reoffending. Increasing psychopathy-related personality features were significantly associated with non-completion of treatment. Clinical implications of research findings, along with limitations and future research directions for each of the three phases of this research were discussed.

The developmental and life-course criminology (DLC) paradigm has become increasingly popular over the last two decades. A primary limitation of this paradigm is the lack of consideration of race and ethnicity within its framework. Race unquestionably matters in today's society and yet it has generally been ignored within the context of DLC theories. The current study aims to contribute to the literature informing DLC by viewing life-course theories through the lens of race and ethnicity. Utilizing nationally-representative data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, the current study examines race-specific developmental trajectories of offending over 11 years during the transition from adolescence to adulthood. The current study employs semiparametric group-based mixture modeling (SPGM) in order to assess heterogeneity in the development of offending both in general and across race and ethnicity. Racial and ethnic differences in offending trajectories are explored and the relevance of these findings is discussed in relation to extant DLC theories. Additionally, the current study explores the utility of theoretically relevant risk and protective factors for distinguishing between offending trajectories and examines whether or not the ability of these factors to distinguish trajectories varies across race and ethnicity. In examining the generality of risk factors across offending trajectories, the current research also explores the utility of general versus developmental theories of offending. The results of the current study indicate that there are stark similarities in the number and patterns of offending trajectories that emerge across race and ethnicity. Additionally, the current study finds support for both general and race-specific effects regarding the ability of risk and protective factors to distinguish offending trajectories. The finding that some risk factors have race-specific effects has implications for DLC theories which predict racial invariance in the causal processes that influence offending throughout the life-course. Additionally, the current study finds little evidence of trajectory-specific etiologies across the full study sample. This finding supports general over developmental theories and is consistent with prior research which indicates that risk factors are best able to distinguish between offenders and non-offenders rather than between offenders who follow divergent developmental trajectories. Overall, the current study findings contribute to the growing body of empirical research examining key DLC issues in the context of race and ethnicity.

Psychopathy has become a highly researched personality disorder in order to better understand criminal and violent behavior (Hare, 1993). Measures of psychopathy have proven to be useful tools in predicting outcomes of institutionalized populations by predicting future dangerousness (Hare, 1999). While several experts in the field of psychopathy allude to the idea of the successful psychopath and their presence in the corporate world (Hare, 1993; Babiak & Hare, 2006), very little research has been done in this area. The current study builds upon the small amount of empirical research by testing hypotheses regarding the relationship between psychopathic personality traits and intentions to engage in white collar crime. Using a sample of 181 university students, psychopathic personality traits were measured using the Psychopathic Personality Inventory - Revised (PPI-R). In addition, scales were developed to measure attitudes toward white collar offending and vignettes were constructed to measures intentions to engage in white collar crime. Four relationships are of primary focus: 1.) Do psychopathic personality traits account for variability in attitudes toward white collar crime?; 2.) Do attitudes toward white collar crime correlate with intentions to engage in white collar crime?; 3.) Are psychopathic personality traits related to intentions to offend and?; 4.) Do attitudes toward offending mediate the relationship between psychopathy and intentions to offend? A major finding is that the Self-Centered Impulsivity factor of the PPI-R accounts for a significant amount of variance in intentions to engage in white collar crime and environmental crime. Additional relationships between psychopathy, attitudes, and intentions are also discussed.

Introduction: Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) accounts for the vast majority of all paediatric TBI cases. It is an important public health concern, yet the long-term psychiatric and behavioural outcomes remain imperfectly understood. Aim. This study aims to examine the association between paediatric mTBI and psychiatric and offending outcomes in adulthood, while considering the impact of sex, age at injury and duration since injury on outcome. Participants: Participants with mTBI (n=57) were compared to those with moderate/severe TBI (n=62) and to orthopaedic injury controls (n=42). All participants were injured at age 17 or younger and were 18 years or older at the time of assessment. Outcome measures: Based on the DSM-IV-TR criteria, structured interviews were used to assess participants’ experience of symptoms consistent with major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders (including generalised anxiety disorder, panic attacks and panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, post-traumatic stress disorder, and specific phobia), and substance abuse and/or dependence. Participants’ were asked to report on their lifetime involvement with offending, arrests, and diversions and/or convictions. Results: At age 18-31, participants with a paediatric mTBI were significantly more likely than orthopaedic injury controls to endorse symptoms consistent with major depressive disorder by 3.17 times, anxiety disorders by 5.81 times, and internalising disorders in general by 5.80 times and the risk in the mTBI group was greater than that for those with moderate/severe TBI. Females with mTBI were significantly more likely than males, by five times, to endorse an internalising disorder. Paediatric mTBI was not significantly associated with externalising problems when compared with controls; however, males with mTBI were 6.57 times more likely to endorse externalising behaviours than females. Conclusions: Paediatric mTBI is a risk factor for internalising disorders in adulthood, particularly for females. Such findings have implications for assessment and treatment of problems associated with paediatric mTBI.

This study uses latent class analysis and latent transition analysis to model and compare patterns of offending over time for males and females by: (1) identifying qualitative dimensions of offending; (2) modeling how patterns of offending change over time; and (3) exploring factors related to patterns of offending. This is a secondary analysis of data from the Edinburgh Study of Youth Transition and Crime, a longitudinal study consisting of a cohort of about 4,000 young people from secondary schools in the City of Edinburgh who responded to questionnaires administered between 1988 and 2001, when they were about 12, 13, 14, and 15 years old. Previous studies of offending have used trajectory modeling to explore the course of offending from onset to termination, but the models are generally based on a count of types of offences aggregated across individuals over time, making it difficult to determine whether individuals exhibit more versatility or specialization in offending or switch offences from one point in time to another. In addition, most of the studies on patterns of offending have focused primarily on males. An understanding of patterns of offending over time for both males and females is important for the design and selection of developmentally appropriate prevention/treatment strategies. The present study adds to the literature by (1) further exploring the small and understudied literature on offence transitions; (2) examining more closely the development of female offending separately from and in relation to male offending; and (3) exploring a range of factors (criminogenic and non-criminogenic) related to the development of offending for both males and females. While the same number of qualitative dimensions (latent classes) characterised male and female offending in this study, there were some structural differences. There was also evidence of shifts in the qualitative dimensions for males and females over time. Finally, those factors classified as criminogenic were more likely to differentiate among the latent classes than those classified as non-criminogenic.

This thesis investigates the behavioural and interactive elements of heroin importation behaviour. Almost all heroin consumed in Australia is imported. Thus the people who conduct the importing and their behavioural characteristics are an important point of focus. The thesis argues too little is known of illegal drug importation and higher level drug deal offending beyond stereotypes and that the lack of publicly available, independent research means there is ill-informed public and political debate and a very narrow evidence-base on which policy and strategy can be based. Review of available literature led to identification of a number of gaps in knowledge about heroin imporation offending and these provided a framework for the focus of investigations. The thesis uses data triangulation to increase the validity of the findings. The findings are based on agency data and semi-structured interviews with informants in Australia, Thailand and Hong Kong. The characteristics of offenders detected importing heavy weights of heroin are contrasted with those importing lighter weights. A number of understandings arise from the findings including some that are supported by other research. As well there are a number of new findings which challenge current concepts and stereotypes and have implications for policy and strategy aimed at supply reduction. (For complete abstract open the document)

This thesis explores eight professionals’ views on the use of the multi-agency approach to assist young people involved in violent and offending behaviour. Parallel to this overall purpose, this thesis also examines the professionals’ views on possible risk factors for the involvement in such behaviour, and their perception of possible improvements to this particular approach. As a result of the policy changes during the 90’s, multi agency approaches became a popular way to deal with crime. In recent years, new frameworks and programs for multi-agency approaches have been introduced. Focus on a more streamlined multi-agency approach, as a way of targeting young people involved in violent and offending behavior, has been implemented by sharing information and working together across agencies for the benefit of children and young people. The method of this thesis applied semi-structured interviews, all of them with 13 prepared questions, to obtain the data necessary, and used snowball sampling to expand the network of informants. The results showed that most agencies saw benefits with the multi-agency approach primarily because of the way in which one can better obtain the needs of the child/youth and accommodate these on different levels thanks to the close interaction of the agencies. Moreover, the informants displayed a unified understanding of the underlying risk factors that might contribute to the involvement in violent or offending behaviour. Primarily, the informants addressed five risk factor themes: family, drugs and alcohol, gang culture and peer pressure, deprivation, and education. As for improvements, the informants saw the biggest need for such in the area of communication, not only between agencies, but also on a societal and political level where social issues must be addressed in policy making and resource funding.