A monitorização terapêutica tem sido descrita como um recurso clínico valioso, na individualização do regime de dosagem, de acordo com a concentração do fármaco em amostras de plasma ou soro. O objetivo da monitorização terapêutica é assegurar a eficácia clínica e minimizar os efeitos adversos dos fármacos prescritos na clínica. A química analítica moderna tem sido direcionada para a simplificação dos métodos através da miniaturização dos sistemas analíticos, minimização do consumo de solvente orgânico e do volume da amostra. Neste contexto, metodologias analíticas utilizando as técnicas de microextração, extração sortiva em barra de agitação (SBSE) e microextração em sorvente empacotado (MEPS), juntamente com a eletroforese capilar em solução não-aquosa (NACE) foram desenvolvidas para fins monitorização terapêutica de antidepressivos inibidores seletivos da recaptação de serotonina (ISRSs: fluoxetina, sertralina, paroxetina e citalopram) em amostras de plasma de pacientes em terapia com ISRSs. Inicialmente foram padronizadas as condições eletroforéticas com detecção espectrofotométrica (UV) para análise simultânea dos ISRSs em amostras de plasma. Dentre as condições avaliadas (diferentes soluções de eletrólitos em meio aquoso e não aquoso, cromatografia eletrocinética micelar e NACE), a técnica NACE-UV foi a única que apresentou resolução dos fármacos adequada. Em seguida, otimizou-se as variáveis inerentes das técnicas de microextração (SBSE e MEPS), visando minimizar o tempo de análise e aumento da sensibilidade analítica. Para o método SBSE/NACE, as variáveis tempo e temperatura de extração, pH da amostra biológica e processo de dessorção foram otimizadas, já para o método MEPS/NACE, as variáveis, pH da amostra biológica, volume da amostra e número dos ciclos aspirar/dispensar foram otimizadas. A validação analítica foi realizada segundo as normas preconizadas pela Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA), com adição de padrão de padrão interno às amostras de plasma enriquecidas com os antidepressivos em diferentes concentrações plasmáticas que contemplam o intervalo terapêutico dos ISRSs. Para avaliar a aplicabilidade das metodologias padronizadas, amostras de plasma de pacientes em terapia com os ISRSs foram analisadas. Os métodos padronizados (SBSE/NACE e MEPS/NACE) foram comparados ao método de referência (LLE/NACE), utilizando a extração líquido-líquido. As técnicas de microextração, quando comparadas à LLE, apresentaram as seguintes vantagens: a reutilização das fases extratoras, procedimentos de extração com reduzido número de etapas, menores volumes de amostras biológicas e de solventes orgânicos. Segundo os parâmetros de validação avaliados, os métodos SBSE/NACE e MEPS/NACE padronizados podem ser empregados nas análises dos antidepressivos (ISRSs) em amostras de plasma, para fins de monitorização terapêutica. / Therapeutic monitoring allows individualization of the dose regimen and has been indicated for the monitoring of well-established therapeutic intervals. In psychiatric disorders, most of the patients require that the plasmatic concentrations to be within a fixed range, so the disorders are kept under control and the adverse effects are acceptable. The aim of the therapeutic monitoring is ensure clinical effectiveness and minimization of adverse effects of drugs prescribed at the clinic. New trends in analytical chemistry have been directed towards simplification and miniaturization of analytical systems, and minimization of organic solvents and sample volume. In this work, analytical methodologies using microextraction techniques, such as stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) and microextraction by packed sorbent (MEPS), in conjunction with capillary electrophoresis in a nonaqueous background electrolyte (NACE) were developed for therapeutic drug monitoring of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs: fluoxetine, sertraline, paroxetine and citalopram) in plasma sample of patients in therapy with SSRIs. First, the optimization of electrophoretic separation of the SSRIs was carried out to obtain simultaneous analysis of all antidepressants. Among the conditions evaluated (different background electrolytes in aqueous and nonaqueous medium, micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography, and NACE), NACE-UV gave the best results. In the sequence, the optimization of the inherent variables of microextraction techniques (SBSE and MEPS)aiming analyses time minimization and increase of analytical sensibilitywas carried out. For SBSE/NACE methodology development the variables such as time of extraction, temperature of extraction, and matrix pH were optimized. For MEPS/NACE methodology the variables matrix pH and the volume of draw-eject cycles were optimized. Analytical validation was carried out in agreement with the norms of National Health Surveillance Agency (ANVISA) for both of the proposed methods, in different plasmatic concentrations, which completed the therapeutic interval. The developed methods (SBSE/NACE e MEPS/NACE) were compared to the reference method, using liquid-liquid extraction (LLE/NACE). Microextraction techniques, compared to LLE, gave the following advantages: reutilization of the extraction phase, fewer numbers of steps for extraction, reduction of sample volume, and less consumption of organic solvents. According to the evaluated validation parameters, the standardized methods SBSE/NACE and MEPS/NACE can be used in the analyses of antidepressants (SSRIs) in plasma sample for therapeutic drug monitoring purposes.

In this work, the nonaqueous synthesis of binary and ternary metal oxide nanoparticles is investigated for a number of technologically important materials. A strong focus was put on studying the reaction mechanisms leading to particle formation upon solvothermal treatment of the precursors, as an understanding of the formation processes is expected to be crucial for a better control of the systems, offering the potential to tailor particle size and morphology.<br><br> The synthesis of BaTiO3 was achieved by solvothermal reaction of metallic barium and titanium isopropoxide in organic solvents. Phase-pure, highly crystalline particles about 6 nm in size resulted in benzyl alcohol, whereas larger particles could be obtained in ketones such as acetone or acetophenone. In benzyl alcohol, a novel mechanism was found to lead to BaTiO3, involving a C–C coupling step between the isopropoxide ligand and the benzylic carbon of the solvent. The resulting coupling product, 4-phenyl-2-butanol, is found in almost stoichiometric yield. The particle formation in ketones proceeds via a Ti-mediated aldol condensation of the solvent, involving formal elimination of water which induces formation of the oxide. These processes also occurred when reacting solely the titanium alkoxide with ketones or aldehydes, leading to highly crystalline anatase nanoparticles for all tested solvents. In ketones, also the synthesis of nanopowders of lead zirconate titanate (PZT) was achieved, which were initially amorphous but could be crystallized by calcination at moderate temperatures. Additionally, PZT films were prepared by simply casting a suspension of the powder onto Si substrates followed by calcination.<br><br>Solvothermal synthesis however is not restricted to alkoxides as precursors but is also achieved from metal acetylacetonates. The use of benzylamine as solvent proved particularly versatile, making possible the synthesis of nanocrystalline In2O3, Ga2O3, ZnO and iron oxide from the respective acetylacetonates. During the synthesis, the acetylacetonate ligand undergoes a solvolysis under C–C cleavage, resulting in metal-bound enolate ligands which, in analogy to the synthesis in ketones, induce ketimine and aldol condensation reactions.<br><br> In the last section of this work, surface functionalization of anatase nanoparticles is explored. The particles were first capped with various organic ligands via a facile in situ route, which resulted in altered properties such as enhanced dispersibility in various solvents. In a second step, short functional oligopeptide segments were attached to the particles by means of a catechol linker to achieve advanced self-assembly properties. / Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der nichtwässrigen Synthese binärer und ternärer Metalloxid-Nanopartikel durch solvothermale Behandlung von Metalloxid-Vorstufen in organischen Lösungsmitteln. Dabei wurde besonderes Augenmerk auf die Reaktionsmechanismen gelegt, da eine genaue Kenntnis des Bildungsmechanismus eine bessere Kontrolle über das Partikelwachstum erwarten lässt, woraus sich die Möglichkeit der genauen Steuerung von Partikelgröße und –form ableitet.<br><br> Bariumtitanat (BaTiO3) konnte durch solvothermale Reaktion von metallischem Barium und Titanisopropoxid in organischen Lösungsmitteln hergestellt werden. Hochkristalline, phasenreine Partikel von etwa 6 nm Durchmesser wurden in Benzylalkohol erhalten, während in Ketonen wie Aceton oder Acetophenon größere Partikel entstanden. In Benzylalkohol läuft ein neuartiger Reaktionsmechanismus ab, der eine C–C-Kupplungsreaktion zwischen dem Isopropoxid und dem benzylischen Kohlenstoffatom des Lösungsmittels umfasst. Das Kupplungsprodukt 4-Phenyl-2-butanol wird in praktisch stöchiometrischer Ausbeute erhalten. In Ketonen verläuft die Partikelbildung über eine titankatalysierte Aldolkondensation des Lösungsmittels, die formell die Eliminierung von Wasser einschließt, was zur Bildung des Oxids führt. Diese Prozesse liefen auch bei Umsetzung von reinem Titanisopropoxid in Ketonen oder Aldehyden ab, wobei hier hochkristalline Anatas-Nanopartikel entstanden. Auch die Synthese von Bleizirkonat-titanat-Nanopulvern war in Ketonen möglich; die zunächst amorphen Pulver konnten durch Kalzinierung bei relativ geringen Temperaturen in kristalline Nanopartikel überführt werden. Zusätzlich wurden Filme durch Auftragen einer Suspension der Pulver auf Siliziumwafer und anschließende Kalzinierung hergestellt.<br><br>Die solvothermale Synthese kann allerdings auch ausgehend von Metallacetylacetonaten durchgeführt werden. Benzylamin erwies sich hier als ein sehr vielseitiges Lösungsmittel und ermöglichte die Synthese von nanokristallinem In2O3, Ga2O3, ZnO und Eisenoxid ausgehend von den jeweiligen Acetylacetonaten. Im Verlauf der Synthese wird der Acetylacetonatligand unter C–C-Bindungsspaltung solvolysiert. Die entstehenden Enolatliganden reagieren dann unter Ketimin- und Aldolkondensation analog der Solvothermalsynthese in Ketonen weiter.<br><br> Der letzte Teil dieser Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Funktionalisierung der Partikel. Zunächst wurden TiO2-Partikel durch verschiedene organische Liganden „in situ“ funktionalisiert, wodurch Eigenschaften wie etwa die Dispergierbarkeit in unterschiedlichen Lösungsmitteln beeinflusst werden konnten. In einem zweiten Schritt wurden kurze Oligopeptidketten über eine Katecholbrücke an die Partikel geknüpft, um anspruchsvolle Selbstanordnungseigenschaften zu erzielen.

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A monitorização terapêutica tem sido descrita como um recurso clínico valioso, na individualização do regime de dosagem, de acordo com a concentração do fármaco em amostras de plasma ou soro. O objetivo da monitorização terapêutica é assegurar a eficácia clínica e minimizar os efeitos adversos dos fármacos prescritos na clínica. A química analítica moderna tem sido direcionada para a simplificação dos métodos através da miniaturização dos sistemas analíticos, minimização do consumo de solvente orgânico e do volume da amostra. Neste contexto, metodologias analíticas utilizando as técnicas de microextração, extração sortiva em barra de agitação (SBSE) e microextração em sorvente empacotado (MEPS), juntamente com a eletroforese capilar em solução não-aquosa (NACE) foram desenvolvidas para fins monitorização terapêutica de antidepressivos inibidores seletivos da recaptação de serotonina (ISRSs: fluoxetina, sertralina, paroxetina e citalopram) em amostras de plasma de pacientes em terapia com ISRSs. Inicialmente foram padronizadas as condições eletroforéticas com detecção espectrofotométrica (UV) para análise simultânea dos ISRSs em amostras de plasma. Dentre as condições avaliadas (diferentes soluções de eletrólitos em meio aquoso e não aquoso, cromatografia eletrocinética micelar e NACE), a técnica NACE-UV foi a única que apresentou resolução dos fármacos adequada. Em seguida, otimizou-se as variáveis inerentes das técnicas de microextração (SBSE e MEPS), visando minimizar o tempo de análise e aumento da sensibilidade analítica. Para o método SBSE/NACE, as variáveis tempo e temperatura de extração, pH da amostra biológica e processo de dessorção foram otimizadas, já para o método MEPS/NACE, as variáveis, pH da amostra biológica, volume da amostra e número dos ciclos aspirar/dispensar foram otimizadas. A validação analítica foi realizada segundo as normas preconizadas pela Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA), com adição de padrão de padrão interno às amostras de plasma enriquecidas com os antidepressivos em diferentes concentrações plasmáticas que contemplam o intervalo terapêutico dos ISRSs. Para avaliar a aplicabilidade das metodologias padronizadas, amostras de plasma de pacientes em terapia com os ISRSs foram analisadas. Os métodos padronizados (SBSE/NACE e MEPS/NACE) foram comparados ao método de referência (LLE/NACE), utilizando a extração líquido-líquido. As técnicas de microextração, quando comparadas à LLE, apresentaram as seguintes vantagens: a reutilização das fases extratoras, procedimentos de extração com reduzido número de etapas, menores volumes de amostras biológicas e de solventes orgânicos. Segundo os parâmetros de validação avaliados, os métodos SBSE/NACE e MEPS/NACE padronizados podem ser empregados nas análises dos antidepressivos (ISRSs) em amostras de plasma, para fins de monitorização terapêutica. / Therapeutic monitoring allows individualization of the dose regimen and has been indicated for the monitoring of well-established therapeutic intervals. In psychiatric disorders, most of the patients require that the plasmatic concentrations to be within a fixed range, so the disorders are kept under control and the adverse effects are acceptable. The aim of the therapeutic monitoring is ensure clinical effectiveness and minimization of adverse effects of drugs prescribed at the clinic. New trends in analytical chemistry have been directed towards simplification and miniaturization of analytical systems, and minimization of organic solvents and sample volume. In this work, analytical methodologies using microextraction techniques, such as stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) and microextraction by packed sorbent (MEPS), in conjunction with capillary electrophoresis in a nonaqueous background electrolyte (NACE) were developed for therapeutic drug monitoring of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs: fluoxetine, sertraline, paroxetine and citalopram) in plasma sample of patients in therapy with SSRIs. First, the optimization of electrophoretic separation of the SSRIs was carried out to obtain simultaneous analysis of all antidepressants. Among the conditions evaluated (different background electrolytes in aqueous and nonaqueous medium, micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography, and NACE), NACE-UV gave the best results. In the sequence, the optimization of the inherent variables of microextraction techniques (SBSE and MEPS)aiming analyses time minimization and increase of analytical sensibilitywas carried out. For SBSE/NACE methodology development the variables such as time of extraction, temperature of extraction, and matrix pH were optimized. For MEPS/NACE methodology the variables matrix pH and the volume of draw-eject cycles were optimized. Analytical validation was carried out in agreement with the norms of National Health Surveillance Agency (ANVISA) for both of the proposed methods, in different plasmatic concentrations, which completed the therapeutic interval. The developed methods (SBSE/NACE e MEPS/NACE) were compared to the reference method, using liquid-liquid extraction (LLE/NACE). Microextraction techniques, compared to LLE, gave the following advantages: reutilization of the extraction phase, fewer numbers of steps for extraction, reduction of sample volume, and less consumption of organic solvents. According to the evaluated validation parameters, the standardized methods SBSE/NACE and MEPS/NACE can be used in the analyses of antidepressants (SSRIs) in plasma sample for therapeutic drug monitoring purposes.

The epoxy based polymer is one of the very common polymers, which was used as a host to create new better materials - nanocomposites. This thesis focused on the improvement of the thermomechanical properties of the epoxy thermosets without deteriorating their existing benefits and on further potential application of this knowledge in "smart" systems. The largest part of this work is dedicated to the reinforcement of epoxy thermosets by in situ generated silica and synthesis of organic-inorganic nanocomposites. Borontrifluoride monoethylamine (BF3MEA) was chosen as effective catalyst for the formation of nanosilica in epoxy-amine network matrix under nonaqueous (non-hydrolytic) sol-gel process. We proposed the mechanism of the nonaqueous sol-gel procedure, studied the structure evolution during the nanocomposite formation, and also determined the structure, morphology and thermomechanical properties of the obtained epoxy-silica nanocomposites. Significant attention in this work was given to the application of coupling agent and ionic liquids to improve compatibilization of the organic matrix and the inorganic part. As a result of the nonaqueous sol-gel process optimization by combination of the tetramethoxysilane (TMOS) and the coupling agent glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GTMS), the high-Tg and...