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Defect Detection on Rail Base Area Using Infrared ThermographyShrestha, Survesh Bahadur 01 September 2020 (has links)
This research aims to investigate the application of infrared thermography (IRT) as a method of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) for the detection of defects in the rail base area. Rails have to withstand harsh conditions during their application. Therefore, defects can develop in the base area of rails due to stresses such as bending, shear, contact, and thermal stresses, fatigue, and corrosion. Such defects can cause catastrophic failures in the rails, ultimately leading to train derailments. Rail base defects due to fatigue and corrosion are difficult to detect and currently there are no reliable or practical non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methods for finding these types of defects in the revenue service. Transportation Technology Center, Inc. (TTCI) had previously conducted a research on the capability of flash IRT to detect defects in rail base area based on simulation approach. The research covered in this thesis is the continuation of the same project.In this research, three rail samples were prepared with each containing a notched-edge, side-drilled holes (SDHs), and bottom-drilled holes (BDHs). Two steel sample blocks containing BDHs and SDHs of different sizes and depths were also prepared. Preliminary IRT trials were conducted on the steel samples to obtain an optimal IRT setup configuration. The initial inspections for one of the steel samples were outsourced to Thermal Wave Imaging (TWI) where they employed Thermographic Signal Reconstruction (TSR) technique to enhance the resulting images. Additional inspections of the steel samples were performed in the Southern Illinois University-Carbondale (SIUC) facility. In case of the rail samples, the SDHs and the notched-edge reflectors could not be detected in any of the experimental trials performed in this research. In addition, two more rail samples containing BDHs were prepared to investigate the detection capabilities for three different surface conditions: painted, unpainted, and rusted. The painted surface provided a best-case scenario for inspections while the other conditions offered further insight on correlating the application to industry-like cases.A 1300 W halogen lamp was employed as the heat source for providing continuous thermal excitation for various durations. Post-processing and analysis of the resulting thermal images was performed within the acquisition software using built-in analysis tools such as temperature probes, Region of Interest (ROI) based intensity profiles, and smoothing filters. The minimum defect diameter to depth (aspect) ratio detected in preliminary trials for the steel sample blocks were 1.0 at a diameter of 4.7625 mm (0.1875 in) and 1.5 at a diameter of 3.175 mm (0.125 in). For the inspection of painted rail sample, the longest exposure times (10 sec) provided the best detection capabilities in all sets of trials. The three holes having aspect ratio greater or equal to 1.0 were indicated in the thermal response of the painted and rusted samples while only the two holes having aspect ratio greater or equal to 1.5 were indicated in the unaltered sample. Indications of reflectors were identified through qualitative graphical analysis of pixel intensity distributions obtained along a bending line profile. The results obtained from the painted sample provided a baseline for analyzing the results from the unpainted and rusted rail samples. This provided an insight on the limitations and requirements for future development. The primary takeaway is the need for an optimized heat source. Poor contrast in the resulting image for the unpainted and rusted rail samples is experienced due to both noise and lack of penetration of the heat energy. This could have been due to decreased emissivity values. Moreover, the excitation method employed in this research does not comply with current industry standards for track clearances. Therefore, exploration of alternative excitation methods is recommended.
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Técnica não destrutiva para análise da interação de linhas de campo magnético e material / Non-destructive technique for analysis of interaction of magnetic flux and materialsLeite, João Pereira 04 December 2014 (has links)
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Previous issue date: 2014-12-04 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The use of ferromagnetic materials such as steel have been abundant in products and manufacturing equipment due to their magnetic properties, which generates an interaction between them and the applied magnetic fields. This interaction has been studied for the development of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) used to detect cracks, heterogeneity, degree of deformation and accompanying precipitation of desirable and / or undesirable phases in materials. In this work a NDT technique based on the application of magnetic fields in the region of reversal of the magnetic materials has been developed. There were compared an SAE 1045 steel and an ASTM 6261 aluminum alloy, being then classified as paramagnetic and ferromagnetic, respectively. It was tried to knowledge of how the variables metallographic geometry and texture could interfere with magnetic induction (B) in these materials. It was determined the values of H and optimum thickness, the equations relating the geometry, thickness, and shape of the samples had magnetic anisotropy and rotating the samples. The technique proved promising with both materials interacted with the magnetic field applied by working in a common region for the two materials magnetization, the magnetic region of reversibility. The method was sensitive to metallographic texture, being promising for determining the best direction of magnetization in materials for electrical purposes. The geometry of the samples influenced the amount of magnetic induction, carrying out mathematical corrections for the comparison of different shapes, sizes, thicknesses and materials is required. For the SAE 1045 steel was magnetic anisotropy due to the existence of metallographic texture from the manufacturing process by rolling steel. For aluminum ASTM 6261 did not occur in magnetic anisotropy due to the lack of metallographic texture. / O uso de materiais ferromagnéticos como o aço tem sido abundante na fabricação de produtos e equipamentos devido às suas propriedades magnéticas, que gera uma interação entre eles e os campos magnéticos aplicados. Essa interação tem sido estudada para o desenvolvimento de Ensaios Não Destrutivos (END) utilizados na detecção de trincas, heterogeneidades, grau de deformação e acompanhamento da precipitação de fases desejáveis e/ou indesejáveis em materiais. Neste trabalho foi desenvolvida uma técnica END baseada na aplicação de campos magnéticos na região de reversibilidade magnética dos materiais. Foram comparados um aço SAE 1045 e uma liga de alumínio ASTM 6261, sendo eles classificados como ferromagnético e paramagnético, respectivamente. Buscou-se o conhecimento de como as variáveis geometria e textura metalográfica poderiam interferir nas respostas de campo magnético induzido (B) nestes materiais. Determinaram-se os valores de H e espessuras ideais, as equações que relacionam geometria, espessura e formato das amostras e se havia anisotropia magnética rotacionando as amostras. A técnica se mostrou promissora, tendo ambos os materiais interagido com o campo magnético aplicado por se trabalhar em uma região de magnetização comum aos dois materiais, a região de reversibilidade magnética. O método se mostrou sensível à textura metalográfica, sendo promissora para a determinação da direção de melhor magnetização em materiais para fins elétricos. A geometria das amostras influenciou no valor de campo magnético induzido, sendo necessária a realização de correções matemáticas para a comparação de materiais de diferentes formatos, espessuras e tamanhos. Para o aço SAE 1045 ocorreu anisotropia magnética em virtude da existência de textura metalográfica proveniente do processo de fabricação por laminação do aço. Para o alumínio ASTM 6261 não ocorreu anisotropia magnética em virtude da inexistência de textura metalográfica.
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Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung metallischer Überlappschweißverbindungen in Lithium-Ionen-Batterien mit Fokus auf die optisch angeregte InfrarotthermografieJust, Philipp 09 July 2019 (has links)
Bei der Assemblierung von Lithium-Ionen-Batterien ist ein zentraler Arbeitsschritt die Herstellung der elektrischen Verbindung von einzelnen Lithium-Ionen-Zellen in Reihen- und/oder Parallelschaltung. Dazu kommen in der Regel Überlappschweißverbindungen aus Blechen mit Dicken von unter 2 mm zum Einsatz. Typischerweise werden Eisen-, Aluminium- und Kupferwerkstoffe genutzt. Dieser Produktionsschritt ist wegen der Wichtigkeit für die gesamte Batteriefunktion in seiner Qualität zu überwachen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wird ein dafür geeignetes Verfahren identifiziert.
Es wurden Ultraschallprüfverfahren, Durchstrahlungsverfahren, die Messung des elektrischen Widerstands sowie thermografische Verfahren auf ihre Eignung zur Prüfung derartiger Überlappschweißverbindungen hin untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die nach dem Stand der Technik verfügbaren Verfahren im betrachteten Anwendungsfall wegen unzureichender Zugänglichkeit, mangelnder Fähigkeit der Fehlerdetektion oder wirtschaftlicher Gründe häufig nur eingeschränkt einsetzbar sind. Demzufolge war ein neues Verfahren zur Prüfung der Schweißnähte zur elektrischen Verbindung von Zellen zu entwickeln. Als Ansatz wurde die optisch angeregte Thermografie gewählt.
Diese konnte erfolgreich eingesetzt werden, wenn ein Laser zur Anregung sowie eine Photonendetektorkamera zur Detektion genutzt wurde. Durch die Anwendung der Lockin-Thermografie konnten Rauscheinflüsse auf die Messung minimiert werden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Lockin-Messungen auch dann ausgewertet können, wenn das gemessene Temperatursignal neben einer harmonischen Schwingung und Rauschen einen stetigen Temperaturtrend aufweist.
Die Anwendung von im Rahmen der Arbeit entwickelten Abschirmelementen, die für die Anregungsstrahlung transparent und die von der genutzten Kamera erfassten Strahlung undurchlässig sind, erlaubte die Prüfung metallischer Schweißverbindung in der Nähe von hochabsorptiven Flächen. Unter Nutzung eines neu entwickelten Auswertealgorithmus, der auf die Kompensation des Effekts lateraler Wärmeflüsse im untersuchten Bauteil zielt, konnte die Ergebnisqualität der Thermografie hinsichtlich einer besseren optischen Korrelation der Ergebnisbilder zu Referenzprüfungen sowie einer verringerten Messunsicherheit der angebundenen Fläche verbessert werden. Insgesamt zeigte sich das Verfahren in seiner weiterentwickelten Form als für die Prüfung tauglich.:1 Einleitung
1.1 Motivation und Ziel
1.2 Einführung in die Arbeit
2 Stand der Technik
2.1 Lithium-Ionen-Batterien für Elektrofahrzeuge
2.1.1 Lithium-Ionen-Batterien im Vergleich zu anderen Energiespeichern in der Elektromobilität
2.1.2 Aufbau und Funktion von Lithium-Ionen-Batterien
2.2 Fertigungstechnik der Kontaktierung von Lithium-Ionen-Zellen
2.2.1 Kontaktierung von Lithium-Ionen-Zellen
2.2.2 Schweißverfahren zur Kontaktierung von Lithium-Ionen-Zellen
2.3 Schweißnahtanforderungen und -fehler
2.4 Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung von Kontaktierverbindungen
2.4.1 Qualitätssicherung von Kontaktierverbindungen
2.4.2 Anforderungen an zerstörungsfreie Prüfverfahren
2.4.3 Ultraschallprüfung
2.4.4 Durchstrahlungsprüfung
2.4.5 Messung des elektrischen Widerstands
2.4.6 Oberflächenprüfung
2.4.7 Infrarotthermografie
3 Vorauswahl eines geeigneten Verfahrens der zerstörungsfreien Prüfung
3.1 Untersuchte Verfahren
3.2 Ultraschallverfahren
3.3 Durchstrahlungsverfahren
3.4 Messung des elektrischen Widerstands
3.5 Infrarotthermografie
3.6 Verfahrensauswahl
4 Anwendung der optisch angeregten Thermografie zur Schweißnahtprüfung
4.1 Herausforderungen bei der Messung von Kontaktierschweißverbindungen von Lithium-Ionen-Batterien
4.2 Narzisseffekt und Perspektivenkorrektur
4.3 Techniken der optischen Anregung
4.4 Signalaufbereitung durch Lockin-Verfahren
4.4.1 Lockin-Thermografie
4.4.2 Lockin-Thermografie im Nicht-Gleichgewichtszustand
5 Unterdrückung des Einflusses von Reflexionen bei der thermografischen Prüfung von Kontaktierverbindungen
5.1 Hintergrund
5.2 Lösungsansatz
5.3 Werkstoffauswahl
5.4 Erprobung
6 Kompensation des Einflusses lateraler Wärmeströme
6.1 Mehrdimensionaler Wärmefluss
6.2 Simulation des Einflusses lateraler Wärmeströme
6.2.1 Simulationsmodell
6.2.2 Simulationsresultate
6.3 Entwicklung eines Kompensationsalgorithmus
6.3.1 Ansatz
6.3.2 Ergebnis
6.3.3 Sensitivitätsanalyse
6.3.4 Fazit der simulativen Untersuchung des Kompensationsalgorithmus
6.4 Umsetzung und Verifikation des Kompensationsalgorithmus
6.4.1 Untersuchte Proben
6.4.2 Emissionsgradmessung
6.4.3 Ergebnisqualität
6.4.4 Grenzen des Algorithmus
7 Zusammenfassung
8 Ausblick / The electrical connection of a multitude of lithium-ion cells is of high importance for producing lithium-ion batteries. These connections are usually carried out with lap welds of steel, aluminium and copper sheets with a thickness of less than 2 mm. Due to its importance the electrical connection should be subject to non-destructive evaluation. Therefore, a suitable method was identified to evaluate the electrical connection.
Technologies based on ultrasonic, radiographic and thermographic evaluation as well as measurement of electrical resistance have been studied regarding their potential to non-destructively test aforementioned lap welds.
It was found that in the studied case state of the art technologies are limited by restraints regarding accessibility, cycle time and detectability of ctitical flaws.
Therefore, a new technique for non-destructive testing of lap welds between cell connections, had to be be defined. Optically excited thermography was considered a promising approach.
Optically excited thermography was applied successfully using a laser as excitation source and a photon detector camera to record infrared radiation. The application of the lock-in principle allowed significant noise reduction. It was shown that the evaluation of temperature sequences using the lock-in algorithm does not depend on a temperature signal that shows strict harmonic behaviour but could also be applied when the raw temperature sequence incorporated a trend.
The application of newly developed radiation shields, which are transparent to the wavelengths of the excitation signal, but opaque to the wavelengths of infrared detection, allowed thermographic testing of metal surfaces in proximity to highly absorbing surfaces. A new algorithm was developed for evaluating thermographic sequences aimed at reducing the impact of lateral thermal flux. It was proven to increase the quality of thermographic results in terms of visual correlation to reference technologies and measurement uncertainty of the joined area. Overall, the improved technology was found to be feasible for non-destructive testing of lap welds in lithium-ion batteries.:1 Einleitung
1.1 Motivation und Ziel
1.2 Einführung in die Arbeit
2 Stand der Technik
2.1 Lithium-Ionen-Batterien für Elektrofahrzeuge
2.1.1 Lithium-Ionen-Batterien im Vergleich zu anderen Energiespeichern in der Elektromobilität
2.1.2 Aufbau und Funktion von Lithium-Ionen-Batterien
2.2 Fertigungstechnik der Kontaktierung von Lithium-Ionen-Zellen
2.2.1 Kontaktierung von Lithium-Ionen-Zellen
2.2.2 Schweißverfahren zur Kontaktierung von Lithium-Ionen-Zellen
2.3 Schweißnahtanforderungen und -fehler
2.4 Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung von Kontaktierverbindungen
2.4.1 Qualitätssicherung von Kontaktierverbindungen
2.4.2 Anforderungen an zerstörungsfreie Prüfverfahren
2.4.3 Ultraschallprüfung
2.4.4 Durchstrahlungsprüfung
2.4.5 Messung des elektrischen Widerstands
2.4.6 Oberflächenprüfung
2.4.7 Infrarotthermografie
3 Vorauswahl eines geeigneten Verfahrens der zerstörungsfreien Prüfung
3.1 Untersuchte Verfahren
3.2 Ultraschallverfahren
3.3 Durchstrahlungsverfahren
3.4 Messung des elektrischen Widerstands
3.5 Infrarotthermografie
3.6 Verfahrensauswahl
4 Anwendung der optisch angeregten Thermografie zur Schweißnahtprüfung
4.1 Herausforderungen bei der Messung von Kontaktierschweißverbindungen von Lithium-Ionen-Batterien
4.2 Narzisseffekt und Perspektivenkorrektur
4.3 Techniken der optischen Anregung
4.4 Signalaufbereitung durch Lockin-Verfahren
4.4.1 Lockin-Thermografie
4.4.2 Lockin-Thermografie im Nicht-Gleichgewichtszustand
5 Unterdrückung des Einflusses von Reflexionen bei der thermografischen Prüfung von Kontaktierverbindungen
5.1 Hintergrund
5.2 Lösungsansatz
5.3 Werkstoffauswahl
5.4 Erprobung
6 Kompensation des Einflusses lateraler Wärmeströme
6.1 Mehrdimensionaler Wärmefluss
6.2 Simulation des Einflusses lateraler Wärmeströme
6.2.1 Simulationsmodell
6.2.2 Simulationsresultate
6.3 Entwicklung eines Kompensationsalgorithmus
6.3.1 Ansatz
6.3.2 Ergebnis
6.3.3 Sensitivitätsanalyse
6.3.4 Fazit der simulativen Untersuchung des Kompensationsalgorithmus
6.4 Umsetzung und Verifikation des Kompensationsalgorithmus
6.4.1 Untersuchte Proben
6.4.2 Emissionsgradmessung
6.4.3 Ergebnisqualität
6.4.4 Grenzen des Algorithmus
7 Zusammenfassung
8 Ausblick
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Évaluation et contrôle non destructifs des barreaux et plaques par génération acoustique induite par absorption de micro-ondes / Nondestructive evaluation and testing of bars and plates by means of acoustic waves generated by microwaves absorptionMohamed elarif, Abderemane 22 March 2011 (has links)
De nombreuses études ont été menées jusqu’ici afin d’analyser l’apport de la technique de génération acoustique par micro-ondes dans le domaine de l’évaluation et du contrôle non destructifs des structures mécaniques. Le caractère entièrement sans contact de cette nouvelle technique en ferait un moyen pouvant être adopté pour générer aisément des ondes acoustiques dans les matériaux diélectriques absorbants. Ce travail porte d’abord sur l’étude des vibrations latérales engendrées dans les barreaux viscoélastiques placés dans un guide d’ondes électromagnétiques contenant une ouverture sur l’une des faces latérales et soumis à de brèves excitations de micro-ondes. Un modèle paramétrique prédit la forme de l’élévation de la température à l’intérieur de l’échantillon. Ses résultats soulignent que l’utilisation des guides partiellement ouverts provoque une distribution asymétrique de la température générant ainsi des modes de flexion. Par ailleurs, un modèle numérique tridimensionnel par éléments finis a permis de mettre en évidence l’existence d’autres modes liés aux déformations des sections-droites lorsqu’elles sont soumises à une brusque dilatation thermique. Ensuite, l’élaboration de méthodes directes pour compléter l’évaluation des propriétés viscoélastiques des mêmes barreaux placés dans les guides conventionnels est considérée. Différents modèles analytiques sont construits pour analyser l’effet du coefficient de Poisson sur le rapport des vibrations induites dans les directions latérale et longitudinale d’une part, et sur la dispersion des ondes acoustiques de type traction compression d’autre part. Un algorithme d’optimisation permettant d’estimer le coefficient de Poisson et la partie réelle de la lenteur à valeurs complexes par une méthode inverse est élaboré puis appliqué dans le cas concret de deux barreaux polymériques. Enfin, une étude analytique et numérique par éléments finis est menée afin d’analyser les vibrations générées sur un défaut circulaire (trou) contenu dans une plaque et chauffé localement par des micro-ondes. Deux approches acoustiques sont construites pour prédire la forme de la zone chauffée par une température uniforme ou gaussienne. Une relation directe entre la taille du défaut et les fréquences de certains pics qui apparaissent sur les spectres des vibrations de la plaque ont été mises en évidence. Celle-ci conviendrait à l’élaboration d’une méthode inverse permettant de dimensionner ces types de défauts. / Many studies in the field of both nondestructive evaluation and testing of mechanical structures have been conducted so far by analyzing the contribution of the microwaves induce acoustic technique. This new non-contact technique can be easily adopted to generate acoustic waves in non-conducting materials. This work begins with studying the lateral vibrations generated within viscoelastic bars hold inside grooved electromagnetic waveguides and subjected to short microwave irradiations. A parametrical model is established in order to predict the shape of the temperature rise within the sample. Results emphasize the fact that these types of waveguides generate a sudden asymmetric temperature rise, which produces some flexural modes. Besides, the development of a 3D numerical model allow the prediction of new vibration modes which are related to the deformations of the bar cross-sections during the sudden thermal heating. Then, direct methods are developed to complete the assessment of the viscoelastic properties of bars placed inside conventional electromagnetic waveguides. Different analytical models are proposed to study the effects of the Poisson ratio either on the ratio between lateral and longitudinal vibrations or on the dispersion of longitudinal waves. An optimization algorithm that allows the Poisson ratio and the real part of the complex slowness evaluation by means of dispersion curves is elaborate before being applied in the specific case of two polymeric bars. Finally, analytical and numerical finite element methods are conducted to analyze the acoustic waves generated by a circular defect (hole) contained in a plate and heated locally by microwaves. Two acoustic approaches are performed to predict the temperature rise form. Furthermore, a nondestructive testing method is highlighted by a direct relationship between the size of the defect and the frequencies of some peaks that appear on the velocity spectra of the plate. This method could be applied to set up an inverse procedure that can be used to size these kinds of defects.
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Zero-group-velocity Lamb modes in laser ultrasonics : fatigue monitoring and material characterization / Modes de Lamb à vitesse de groupe nulle en ultrasons laser : suivi de la fatigue et caractérisation de matériauxYan, Guqi 20 November 2018 (has links)
Ces dernières années, les modes de Lamb à vitesse de groupe nulle (ZGV) se sont révélés être un outil efficace pour sonder localement et précisément l'épaisseur d'un échantillon ou les propriétés mécaniques de matériaux isotropes ou anisotropes. Ce type particulier d'ondes guidées, telles de fortes résonances locales de la structure, résulte de l'interférence de deux ondes de Lamb ayant une vitesse de phase opposée et coexistant pour un couple fréquence-nombre d'ondes particulier. Les ultrasons laser ont démontré leur capacité à générer et détecter efficacement de telles résonances locales dans la gamme des MHz. En effet, la configuration tout optique, constituée d'une source laser pulsée pour générer les ondes élastiques et d'un interféromètre pour sonder le déplacement normal associé, évite tout contact avec l'échantillon, limitant ainsi l'élargissement ou la suppression de résonances. L'utilisation de modes ZGV pour suivre la fatigue des matériaux et sonder des phénomènes non linéaires reste cependant un défi et constitue le cœur des travaux de recherche présentés ici. La partie théorique porte sur la compréhension de l’effet de la fatigue mécanique sur les modes ZGV à travers l’analyse fréquence-nombre d’ondes des modes de Lamb. La partie expérimentale est consacrée à l’application de cette technique pour l'ECND et le suivi de la fatigue de plaques métalliques minces. Les modes ZGV en ultrasons laser montrent un grand potentiel pour localiser les dommages dus à la fatigue, prédire la vie en fatigue et évaluer qualitativement, voire quantitativement, les différents stades de dommages causés par la fatigue. / In recent years, zero-group-velocity (ZGV) Lamb modes have proven to be an efficient tool to probe locally and very accurately the thickness of a sample or the mechanical properties of either isotropic or anisotropic materials. This particular type of guided waves, corresponding to sharp local resonances of the structure, results of the interference of two Lamb waves having opposite phase velocity and coexisting at a couple given frequency-wavenumber. The laser ultrasonic technique has demonstrated its ability to efficiently generate and detect such local resonances within the MHz frequency range. Indeed, the all-optical setup, consisting of a pulsed laser source to generate elastic waves and of an interferometer to probe the associated normal displacement, avoids any contact with the sample, hence limiting the broadening or suppression of the resonances. Yet, the use of ZGV Lamb modes to monitor material fatigue and to probe nonlinear phenomena remains challenging and is the core of the here-reported research. The theoretical part of this PhD research deals with the understanding of the effect of mechanical fatigue on ZGV Lamb modes through the frequency-wavenumber analyzes of the Lamb waves. The experimental part of the PhD research is dedicated to the application of this technique for the nondestructive characterization and for the monitoring of mechanical and thermal fatigue of thin metal plates. Zero-group-velocity Lamb modes in laser ultrasonics shows great promises to locate fatigue damage, to predict the fatigue lifetime, and to qualitatively, and even quantitatively, assess the different stages of fatigue damage in m- to potentially cm-thick solid plates.
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Oblique angle pulse-echo ultrasound characterization of barely visible impact damage in polymer matrix compositesWelter, John T. January 2019 (has links)
No description available.
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