Land-cover identification and mapping are an integral part of natural resource planning and management. Satellite imagery provides a way to obtain land cover information, particularly for large tracts of land such as those administered by federal and state agencies. This study assesses the usefulness of the Brightness/Greenness Transformation of Landsat Thematic Mapper data for differentiating conifer forest types in northern Utah. Satellite data for the Logan Ranger District of the Wasatch-Cache National Forest were classified into 27 vegetation classes. Of these, nine were determined to be conifer classes and were used in subsequent analyses. Ten sites of each conifer class type were field checked and vegetation and physical site characteristics recorded. The Brightness/Greenness Transformation was able to distinguish conifer areas from other vegetation types. High-density conifer classes were classified at 94 percent accuracy. Low-density conifer classes were classified correctly 65 percent of the time. The Brightness/Greenness Transformation alone met with limited success in distinguish ing between conifer species. Each class showed great variability with respect to major overstory species. Analysis of variance indicated that none of the site factors measured consistently corresponded with the spectrally designated classes. While several factors differed significantly among classes, no factor was significantly different for all c l ass-pair combinations. Correlation analysis revealed that brightness, greenness, and wetness values related more to environmental values than to conifer species. Brightness was highly correlated with percent of exposed soil on the site. Greenness was highly correlated to the presence of deciduous and herbaceous vegetation. Wetness was highly correlated to total tree and conifer cover values. Adding slope and aspect data to the Brightness/Greenness Transformation classes with the highest percentages of canopy cover did allow separation of lodgepole pine and Douglas fir. High percentagecanopy cover sites on slopes less than 35 percent were classified as lodgepole pine with 89 percent accuracy. On slopes greater than or equal to 35 percent, Douglas fir was found with 79 percent accuracy.

The operating costs for farms and ranches in the United States have increased 81 percent between 1970 and 1976. Calf prices over this same period have fluctuated dramatically and have fallen from a high of $58/cwt in 1973 to a low of $2 6/ cwt in 1975. Since 1973, the increasing operating costs have exceeded the returns gene rated by the low calf prices and have left operators in a negative financial position. This case study has shown that the operator has increased both the scale and efficiency of his operation through improved lives tock husbandry and range improvements , yet has been unable to keep up with the increase in operating costs. A res t rot at ion grazing system and associated range improvements were implemented in 1970 on the summer mountain range. The resultant increase in forage prod uction allowed a 45 percent increase in the breeding herd. The meadow hayland and crested wheat grass pastures were also improved to provide winter and spring forage for the increased number of cows. The calf crop weaned and average weaning weights increased from 86 percent and 347 pound s i n 1970 to 93 percent and 363 pounds i n 1976. The total pounds of calf weaned increased 60 percent between 1970 and 1976. The tremendous increase in beef production was offset by the rampant increase in op e rating costs. The net return in 1970 was $2 , lOo but dropped to a loss of - $3,671 i n 1976. However, had the operator not increased the level of production while the operating costs increased, his net loss in 1976 would have been - $24 , 718 . Although the net returns a re negative , the increase in returns over the base level of production is positive. The internal rate of return and net present worth of the grazing system and its associated improvements was 25 percent and $95 ,027 respectively. TI1 e operator has been successful in developing his range and livestock resource and increasing calf production. It is paradoxical that the increase in returns above the base production have rendered the improvements economically profit able yet the combination of increasing operating costs and low livestock prices have produced a negative return from 1974 through 1976.

The study was designed to test the genetic theory of soil development of two soils derived from different geological material, but developed under conditions of similar climate , topography, biological activity, and age. An attempt wa s made to relate the soils charac teristics to their present classification . Parleys and Mendon series which developed from Bonneville and Salt Lake Formation , respectively, were selected for that purpose. Along the east side of Cache Valley, two pedons representing each of the studied series were sel ected to have si~ilar soil formers except for their parent material. Evidently, the se studied soils have been developed from di.ff erent heterogenous sediments . Mendon soils have been developed from Salt Lake Formation to at l east 51 em depth, ~vhereas, the solum horizons are a tt ributed to the Bonneville Formation. The Parleys soil seems to be n.J ·inJy Jevel(,)ped from Bonneville Formation. But the upper solum horizons are rrobably inte rlaye red with fine deposits of Holocene age . Those soils which de rived from differe nt geologica] dcposi ts sl!mv .J high degree of similarity between them. Heterogenlty and the nature of the soil parent mat e rial, and similarity of their climatic and developmental conditions are believed to be the major causes to inhibit many genetic variables between them. In Northern Utah, the Mendon soils are classified as Calcic Pachic Argixerolls , at the subgroup level. This study has shown that most of the Mendon pedons do not have a Pachic epipedon. Therefore , these s tudi ed soil s could he gr ouped toge ther in one subgroup. The result is Calcic Argixerolls in fine-silty, mixed, mesic family. Re-examining Mendon series in Cache Valley and reclassifying them on the basis of Pachic epipedon would be an interesting Subject for further study.

It is the purpose of the present study to determine, and, as far as possible, to evaluate in terms of the Cooperative Study of secondary School Standars the following items as found in 5 selected high school libraries in Northern Utah: (1) objectives, (2) library materials, including book collection, periodicals, pamphlets, clippings, bulletines, and visual aids, (3) organization and administration, including finances, library personnel, classification and cataloging, accessibility of the library, and the librarian's responsibilties, (4) selecting of library materials, (5) utilization of the library, (6) housing and equipping the library, and (7) speical characteristics. Since an administrator must know the characteristics of an effectived library, some of the prevailing practcies among the various libraries, and the actual characteristics of the library in question before he can actually carry forth a program of library reconstruction, this study may be of value in focusing attention to the needs of the high school library, and directing the administrator's attention toward current trends, thus aiding the library to assume its proper place in the modern secondary school program.

The mineralogy and morphology of a soil with a cambic horizon (Stingal) and a soil with an argillic horizon (Hansel), occurring in northern Utah, were studied. Pedons representing the central concept of each of the soils were sampled by genetic horizon for laboratory analyses. Particle- size distribution, calcium carbonate equivalent, cation-exchange capacity, organic carbon , and the mineralogy of the silt, coarse clay, and fine clay fractions were determined. Thin sections of the soils were examined with a petrographic microscope. Selected peds were observed using a scanning electron microscope, and elemental analyses were made with an x-ray analyzer. The two soils were found to be similar in many respects . The particle-size distribution and mineralogy were essentially the same, indicating the similarities of parent materials and the nature of pedogenic processes. As expected, the argillic horizon contained more. fine and total clay than did the cambic horizon, and the Hansel soil showed signs of more intense weathering. Both factors are related to the greater age of the Hansel soils. The clay increase in both the cambic and the argillic horizons was attributed to a combination of ill situ clay formation and illuviation. This conclusion was based on the lack of depositional discontinuities, greater ratios of fine to total clay in the B horizons, and the electron microscopic observation of discontinuous clay films in pores of the Hansel soil. The lack of visible clay films in thin section is probably the result of soil mixing by cicada and/or the prevention of translocation by carbonates. The scanning electron microscope proved to be useful in the investigation of the two soils. The similarities of the two soils were apparent from laboratory analyses and scanning microscope observations. Evidence of illuviation, which was lacking in thin section, was visible with the scanning electron microscope, thus demonstrating the potential of the microscope in classifying and interpreting soils in future investigations.

Forty-three and 54 Ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis) pairs were found occupying territories in northern Utah and southeastern Idaho during 1972 and 1973, respectively. Of these 38 and 27 nesting pairs laid eggs. Nesting success was 77.1 percent in 1972 and 74.6 percent in 1973. for successful nests, an average of 2.9 and 2.6 young hatched and 2.7 and 2.3 young fledged during the respective years. This population is reproductively comparable to others in Utah and Colorado. Analysis of prey items collected from the nests indicated that black-tailed jack-rabbits (Lepus californicus) constitute 86 percent of the biomass (by weight) of three major prey species consumed by ferruginous hawks in this area. Jackrabbit density may be a major determinant of the number of young produced in a given year. Weight gained by the nestlings showed a marked sexual dimorphism. Female fledgelings weighed up to 1.43 times as much as males. Criteria were developed for sexing ferruginous hawks by measuring the diameter of the hallux. Mortality of 17 birds from the study area was recorded, of which 47 percent were immature birds. A total of 108 fledglings were banded and marked with color-coded patagial wing markers. Band reports of five (10 percent) of these birds were received. Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) provided nest sites for 96.0 percent of the nests while three percent were built on the ground. Plant community types were determined at 63 nesting sites from aerial photographs. Dominant vegetation around nest sites were desert shrub types and crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) seedings. The possible impact of land management practices on ferruginous hawks is discussed.

The purpose of this project was to evaluate effectiveness of aerial photography as a waterfowl census technique. An aerial photographic pattern was formulated and tested during the spring and fall months of 1971 and 1972 at Ogden Bay Waterfowl Management Area, Weber County, Utah. The reliability and feasibility of the technique for censusing waterfowl proved effective and practical. Eight flights per season, 4 routes per flight, and 30 photos per route taken over unit 1 of the Ogden Bay Waterfowl Management Area was the experimental design or pattern for the study. The level of accuracy and the cost involved with this design was: Spring 1971 27% sampling error cost $566.90 Spring 1972 33% sampling error cost $566.90 Fall 1971 30% sampling error cost $566.90 Fall 1972 17% sampling error cost $566.90 The effectiveness of other patterns were calculated using different intensities of flights, routes and photos. The patterns of flights, routes, photos, and costs calculated to achieve reliable and feasible estimates of waterfowl numbers at an acceptable sampling error of 21% or less at the 95% confidence level, calculated in tabular form, would have varied per season from 6 flights, 4 routes, and 5 photos to 16 flights, 6 routes, and 35 photos; costing from $220.00 to $1,550.00.

It was the purpose of this study to examine an assumption basic to the forest habitat type classification system. Included in each habitat type is all land capable of supporting a single climax plant community type. In practice, land is grouped based on species camposition, relative abundance, and successional trends of the vegetation supported by the land. Land units of the same habitat type are assumed to represent similar environments. No previous critical evaluation of this assumption has been done. Land in the study area had been previously classified under the habitat type system. Relationships between vegetation and environment were studied in the Abies lasiocarpa/Pedicularis racemosa, Abies lasiocarpa/Osmorhiza chilensis, Abies lasiocarpa/Berberis repens, Pseudotsuga menziesii/Physocarpus malvaceus, Pseudotsuga menziesii/Berberis repens, and Pseudotsuga menziesii/Cercocarpus ledifolius habitat types. Environmental variables potentially important in determining the vegetation characteristics defining the habitat types were measured over two summers (1977 and 1978) in stands representative of these types. These measurements showed these habitat types to occupy significantly different environments for most environmentalvariables studied. Environments were more variable between than withinthe habitat types. Two-dimensional direct gradient analyses for single and multiple environmental variables were compared to ordination results to find which of the environmental variables measured might determine the vegetation gradients indicated by the ordination. Gradients of elevation, maximum and minimum air temperature, and estimated annual incident solar radiation did not correlate well with ordination axes. Best correlation, 0.78 and 0.74 respectively, resulted for summer soil temperature measured at 50 em for one ordination axis and, for the second ordination axis, a linear combination of soil moisture percentage at 20 em, estimated percent volume of coarse rock fragments in the soil, and available soil water storage capacity estimated from soil texture class and percent rock. These temperature and moisture variables are felt to be important through their influence on plant moisture stress. Direct measurement of predawn plant moisture stress on conifer saplings did not differentiate between habitat types. Results were highly variable. This was attributed to morphological and microhabitat influences such as disease, rooting pattern and shading which may obscure larger scale environmental differences between stands. It is hypothesized that vegetation in these habitat types responds to environmental gradients that determine the availability of soil moisture to plant roots to meet transpirational demand and atmospheric influences on that demand. Hypotheses of the relationships of the habitat types to these environmental gradients were developed. It is tentatively concluded that the habitat type classification system is effective in stratifying the physical environment in terms of environmental factors which are physiologically meaningful to the vegetation characteristics defining the habitat type classes.

The Blacksmith Formation of Middle Cambrian (Albertan) age was studied in southeastern Idaho and northernmost Utah. Lithology and sedimentary structures were compared with modern environments and ancient rocks to determine environments of deposition, paleo-geography, diagenetic alterations and patterns of dolomitization. The Blacksmith Formation can be divided into five basic rock types. Rock type A has cryptalgalaminae, nrudcracks, and lacks bioturbation. Rock type A is inferred to have been deposited in the upper intertidal to supratidal environment. Rock type Bis extremely dolomitized and brecciated. It is inferred that rock type B was deposited in the upper intertidal to supratidal environment. Rock type C may have cryptalgal mats, stromatolites consisting of laterally linked hemispheroids, birdseye structures, vertical burrows and pseudomorphs after evaporite minerals. Rock type C is inferred to have been deposited in the lower intertidal environment. Rock type D is fine grained, often dark gray in color, has trails and often contains fossil fragments. Rock type Dis inferred to have been deposited in subtidal-lagoon or open-platform environments. Rock type Eis ooid-rich, and is often cross-stratified. Rock type Eis inferred to have been deposited in an agitated-shoal or quiet-water shoal environment. All rocks of the Blacksmith Formation were deposited in supratidal to shallow subtidal environments. During Albertan time the study area was located in the tropics, and the adjacent area had little relief. Clay mineralogy of the insoluble residues suggests a relatively humid paleoclimate. Tidal amplitude was probably low, as suggested by ·small algal domes, LLH strornatolites, and cryptalgal mats. Water depth varied throughout the area. Less restricted fauna to the north suggest that water depth increased to the north. It is inferred that a transgression from the west, regression to the west, a second transgression, and possibly a second regression controlled the distribution of facies. Early diagenesis included minor compaction of intertidal or very shallow subtidal deposits, whereas deeper subtidal deposits may have undergone more compaction. Cementation occurred early in the inter-tidal or shallow subtidal environment. Dolomitization of the Blacksmith by a hypersaline brine is suggested by pseudomorphs after evaporites, authigenic quartz, desiccation features and cloudy dolomite rhombs. Chemical analyses for sodium also indicate a hypersaline fluid. The association of some of the dolomite with the oolite-shoal environment suggests that the dolomite distribution may be in part facies-controlled. The hypersaline brine likely developed on tidal flats south of the area, and percolated through the sediments via refluxion and through the permeable sediments via hydrostatic head. The amount of dolomite decreases to the north, farther from the source of the brine. As the dolomitizing brine moved downward, the Mg/Ca ratio was lowered so that a ferroan dolomite formed in the subsurface, under reducing conditions. Late diagenetic events include aggrading neoroorphism by low-Mg calcite which may obliterate grains and cement or preserve grains and episodes of cementation. Late dolomitization, producing coarse dolomite rhombs exhibiting undulose extinction and curved crystal faces may have been epigenetic in origin.

Frequently, in evaluating plant deficiencies, one considers only those soil factors which are associated with the fertility of the soil-- mainly the levels of phosphorus, potash, nitrogen, and organic matter. A certain level of nutrition is essential for plant growth, but in order for the nutrients to exert their maximum influence on the productivity of the soil, it is equally important that a good soil environment be provided and maintained. A good environment requires that good physical conditions of soil, sir, and water be in balance.