Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Tsetse flies are the biological vectors of human and animal trypanosomiasis and hence representant medical and veterinary importance. The sense of smell plays a significant role in tsetse and its ecological interaction, such as finding blood meal source, resting, and larvicidal sites and for mating. Tsetse olfactory behaviour can be exploited for their management; however, olfactory studies in tsetse flies are still fragmentary. Here in my PhD thesis, using scanning electron microscopy, electrophysiology, behaviour, bioinformatics and molecular biology techniques, I have investigated tsetse flies (Glossina fuscipes fuscipes) olfaction using behaviourally well studied odorants, tsetse repellent by comparing with attractant odour. Insect olfaction is mediated by olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs), located in olfactory sensilla, which are cuticular structures exposed to the environment through pore and create a platform for chemical communication.

Odorantes são detectados por centenas de receptores olfatórios (ORs) que pertencem à superfamília dos receptores acoplados à proteína G. Estes receptores são expressos nos neurônios sensoriais olfatórios localizados na cavidade nasal. Cada neurônio sensorial olfatório expressa um único alelo de gene OR de uma grande família de genes OR. Este padrão característico da expressão de genes OR resulta na formação de um mapa olfatório espacial no bulbo olfatório, que é necessário para a discriminação de odorantes pelo sistema olfatório. Os mecanismos envolvidos nesta regulação ainda não são bem conhecidos. O DNA genômico em neurônios olfatórios é coberto com marcas repressivas de metilação de histonas, indicando que a regulação da estrutura da cromatina deve desempenhar um papel importante na regulação da expressão de genes OR. Trabalhos anteriores demonstraram que RNAs não codificadores (ncRNAs) estão envolvidos na deposição de marcas de histonas em determinados genes. No entanto, os ncRNAs expressos no epitélio olfatório ainda não são conhecidos. Neste trabalho, identificamos e catalogamos o repertório completo de ncRNAs anotados, incluindo os miRNAs, expressos no epitélio olfatório de camundongos recémnascidos e adultos. Muitos destes, apesar de já anotados como ncRNAs, ainda não foram descritos na literatura como expressos no MOE. Identificamos ao todo 1161 miRNAs e 295 lincRNAs expressos no epitélio olfatório, e pudemos verificar como os níveis de expressão destes RNAs variam durante o desenvolvimento. A partir deste repertório, selecionamos lincRNAs que são preferencialmente expressos no epitélio olfatório quando comparados a outros tecidos de camundongo. Dez destes lincRNAs foram selecionados para validação utilizando-se RT-PCR. Cinco lincRNAs foram validados e analisados quanto à sua expressão em diferentes tecidos. Nosso trabalho estabelece uma plataforma de dados que permitirá o estudo do papel desempenhado por ncRNAs no epitélio olfatório. Além disto, os nossos resultados mostram que a abordagem utilizada permite a identificação de novos lincRNAs que apresentam expressão restrita ou preferencial no epitélio olfatório, e que, portanto, devem apresentar uma função relevante para o olfato. / Odorants are detected by hundreds of odorant receptors (ORs) which belong to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors. These receptors are expressed in the olfactory sensory neurons of the nose. Each olfactory sensory neuron expresses one single OR gene allele from a large family of OR genes. This characteristic pattern of OR gene expression results in the formation of a spatial olfactory map in the olfactory bulb, which is required for odorant discrimination by the olfactory system. The mechanisms involved in this regulation are unknown. OR genomic DNA in olfactory neurons is covered with repressive histone methylation marks, indicating that the chromatin structure should play an important role in the regulation of OR gene expression. Previous studies suggest that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are involved in the deposition of histone marks in certain genes. However, the ncRNAs expressed in the olfactory epithelium are completely unknown. In this work, we used RNA-seq to identify and catalogue the complete repertoire of ncRNAs, including miRNAs, expressed in the olfactory epithelium from newborn and adult mice. In this way, we were able to identify 1161 miRNAs and 295 lincRNAs and analyze how their levels of expression varies during development. Out of these repertoire, we selected lincRNAs that are preferentially expressed in the olfactory epithelium when compared to other mouse tissues. Ten out of these lincRNAs were selected for validation by using RTPCR, and five of them could be validated and further analyzed. Our work establishes a data platform which will enable the study of the role played by ncRNAs in the olfactory epithelium. In addition, our results show that our approach can be successfully used to identify ncRNAs that are restrictedly or preferentially expressed in the olfactory epithelium, and which therefore must be relevant for olfaction.

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No. of bitstreams: 1 DissDMRG.pdf: 6251788 bytes, checksum: 7ef11e629010aba06934d05d8113712d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-05-02 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / This dissertation is divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, we provide a concise literature review that discusses key theoretical concepts, the rationale, and main objectives outlined for this study. The second chapter investigates the molecular evolution of the gene family of odor receptors (ORs) identified in the transcriptomes of two species of fruit flies of great economic importance: Anastrepha fraterculus and A. obliqua. The results showed a high percentage of average identities between ORs from these species, as well as recent gene expansions with signs of positive selection. A comparison of rates of synonymous and nonsynonymous substitutions among Anastrepha species detected evidence of positive selection in the gene Or7c, which is associated to an important potential role in aggregation behavior and host choice for oviposition in D. melanogaster. The third chapter investigates patterns of molecular evolution in pheromone binding proteins (PBPs), also identified in A. fraterculus and A. obliqua, as well as studied pattern of polymorphisms, divergence and populational structure of four chemosensory genes amplified in four species of tephritid flies of fraterculus group: A. fraterculus, A. obliqua, A. sororcula and A. turpiniae. This study contrasted previously identified genes with evidence of positive and purifying selection in order to investigate whether they are contributing to the differentiation among some of the species of this group. We found no evidence of positive selection in PBPs studied in a more global comparison, although we found positive selection signals in some of the genes and studied strains. Population analysis of chemosensory genes in different species of Anastrepha detected high levels of intraspecific nucleotide and haplotype diversity. Divergence tests showed that A. obliqua is the most different species of the ones here investigated, having, in general, high levels of nucleotide substitutions, non-synonymous divergence, as well as fixed species specific differences, whereas we failed to find similar differences amongst the other species here studied. The genes Obp28a, Or7c and Or7d were differentiated in A. obliqua, indicating a potential role in the differentiation of other species in the group, or in this species’ diversification and adaptation. / A presente dissertação encontra-se dividida em três capítulos. O primeiro capítulo apresenta uma concisa revisão bibliográfica que aborda os principais conceitos teóricos, a justificativa e os objetivos delineados para este estudo. O segundo capítulo apresenta um estudo da evolução molecular da família gênica dos receptores de odores (ORs) identificados nos transcriptomas de duas espécies de moscas-das-frutas de grande importância econômica: Anastrepha fraterculus e A.obliqua. Os resultados mostraram uma alta porcentagem de identidade média entre os ORs destas espécies, assim como expansões gênicas recentes com sinal de seleção positiva. Quando comparamos as taxas de substituições sinônimas e não-sinônimas entre as espécies de Anastrepha encontramos evidências de seleção positiva no gene Or7c, que está associado em D. melanogaster a um potencial importante papel nos comportamentos de agregação e escolha de frutos para oviposição. No terceiro capítulo apresentamos um estudo do padrão de evolução molecular dos genes que codificam para proteínas ligantes aos feromônios (PBPs), também identificados em A. fraterculus e A. obliqua, assim como também estudamos o padrão de polimorfismos, divergência e estrutura dos genes quimiossensoriais Obp28a, Obp84a, Or7c e Or7d os quais foram amplificados em quatro espécies de moscas-das-frutas do grupo fraterculus, A. fraterculus, A. obliqua, A. sororcula e A. turpiniae. Este estudo foi realizado contrastando genes identificados com sinais de seleção positiva e seleção purificadora com o intuito de investigar se eles estão contribuindo para a diferenciação entre algumas das espécies desse grupo. Não encontramos evidências de seleção positiva nas PBPs estudadas em uma comparação mais global, embora tenhamos encontrado sinais de seleção positiva em alguns dos genes e linhagens estudadas. A análise populacional de genes quimiossensoriais em diferentes espécies de Anastrepha detectou níveis altos de diversidade nucleotídica e haplotípica dentro das espécies. Os testes de divergência mostraram que a espécie A. obliqua é a espécie mais diferenciada, apresentando, em geral, altos níveis de substituições nucleotídicas, divergência não-sinônima, assim como diferenças fixadas quando comparada com as outras espécies. Os genes Obp28a, Or7c e Or7d mostraram-se diferenciados em A. obliqua, indicando um potencial papel na diferenciação desta espécie com respeito às outras espécies estudadas.

L’homme possède ~400 gènes codant pour des récepteurs aux odorants (ROs) qui sont différentiellement activés par un espace virtuellement infini de molécules. Le code combinatoire qui résulte de cette activation permettrait au nez humain de discriminer plus de mille milliards de stimuli olfactifs différents. Mais comment le percept est-il encodé dans la structure d’une molécule ? Pour comprendre comment notre nez décrypte la structure des molécules odorantes, des modèles numériques ont été utilisés pour étudier les principaux protagonistes de l’olfaction : les ROs et les odorants. Ici, l’apprentissage automatique est utilisé pour explorer et exploiter les données déjà existantes sur les ROs. D’autre part, la modélisation moléculaire est employée pour comprendre les mécanismes qui sous-tendent la reconnaissance moléculaire. Dans cette thèse j’ai passé en revue les relations structure-odeur du point de vue d’un chimiste. J’ai ensuite développé un protocole d’apprentissage automatique, qui a été validé pour prédire de nouveaux ligands pour quatre ROs. La modélisation moléculaire a été utilisée pour comprendre la reconnaissance moléculaire des ROs. Notamment, l’existence d’un site vestibulaire conservé dans une classe de ROs a été mis en évidence et le rôle de la cavité de liaison orthostérique dans les ROs a été étudiée. L’application de ces techniques permet de moderniser la déorphanisation guidée par ordinateur. Dans sa globalité, mes travaux ont aussi permis de préparer le terrain pour tester de façon virtuelle le code combinatoire des odeurs, et pour prédire la réponse physiologique déclenchée par ces molécules. Dans son ensemble, ce travail ancre la relation structure-odeur dans l’ère post-génomique, et souligne la possibilité de combiner différentes approches computationnelles pour étudier l’olfaction. / Humans have ~400 genes encoding odorant receptors (ORs) that get differentially activated by a virtually infinite space of small organic molecules. The combinatorial code resulting from this activation could allow the human nose to discriminate more than one trillion different olfactory stimuli. But how is the percept encoded in the structure of a molecule? To understand how our nose decrypts the structure of molecules, numerical models were used to study the main protagonists of olfaction: ORs and odorants. These approaches included machine-learning methods to explore and exploit existing data on ORs, and molecular modeling to understand the mechanisms behind molecular recognition. In this thesis I first review the structure-odor relationships from a chemist's point of view. Then, I explain how I developed a machine learning protocol which was validated by predicting new ligands for four ORs. In addition, molecular modeling was used to understand how molecular recognition takes place in ORs. In particular, a conserved vestibular binding site in a class of human ORs was discovered, and the role of the orthosteric binding cavity was studied. The application of these techniques allows upgrading computer aided deorphanization of ORs. My thesis also establishes the basis for testing computationally the combinatorial code of smell perception. Finally, it lays the groundwork for predicting the physiological response triggered upon odorant stimulation. Altogether, this work anchors the structure-odor relationship in the post-genomic era, and highlights the possibility to combine different computational approaches to study smell.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Tsetse flies are the biological vectors of human and animal trypanosomiasis and hence representant medical and veterinary importance. The sense of smell plays a significant role in tsetse and its ecological interaction, such as finding blood meal source, resting, and larvicidal sites and for mating. Tsetse olfactory behaviour can be exploited for their management; however, olfactory studies in tsetse flies are still fragmentary. Here in my PhD thesis, using scanning electron microscopy, electrophysiology, behaviour, bioinformatics and molecular biology techniques, I have investigated tsetse flies (Glossina fuscipes fuscipes) olfaction using behaviourally well studied odorants, tsetse repellent by comparing with attractant odour. Insect olfaction is mediated by olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs), located in olfactory sensilla, which are cuticular structures exposed to the environment through pore and create a platform for chemical communication. In the sensilla shaft the dendrite of OSNs are housed, which are protected by called the sensillum lymph produced by support cells and contains a variety of olfactory proteins, including the odorant binding protein (OBP) and chemosensory proteins (CSP). While on the dendrite of OSNs are expressed olfactory receptors. In my PhD, studies I tried to decipher the sense of smell in tsetse fly. In the second chapter, I demonstrated that G. f. fuscipes is equipped with diverse olfactory sensilla, that various from basiconic, trichoid and coeloconic. I also demonstrated, there is shape, length, number difference between sensilla types and sexual dimorphism. There is a major difference between male and female, while male has the unique basiconic sensilla, club shaped found in the pits, which is absent from female pits. In my third chapter, I investigated the odorant receptors which are expressed on the dendrite of the olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs). G. f. fuscipes has 42 ORs, which were not functionally characterised. I used behaviourally well studied odorants, tsetse repellents, composed of four components blend. I demonstrated that tsetse repellent is also a strong antifeedant for both G. pallidipes and G. f. fuscipes using feeding bioassays as compared to the attractant odour, adding the value of tsetse repellent. However, the attractant odour enhanced the feeding index. Using DREAM (deorphanization of receptors based on expression alterations of mRNA levels). I found that in G. f. fuscipes, following a short in vivo exposure to the individual tsetse repellent component as well as an attractant volatile chemical, OSNs that respond to these compounds altered their mRNA expression in two opposite direction, significant downregulation and upregulation in their number of transcripts corresponding to the OR that they expressed and interacted with odorant. Also, I found that the odorants with opposite valence already segregate distinctly at the cellular and molecular target at the periphery, which is the reception of odorants by OSNs, which is the basis of sophisticated olfactory behaviour. Deorphanization of ORs in none model insect is a challenge, here by combining DREAM with molecular dynamics, as docking score, physiology and homology modelling with Drosophila a well-studied model insects, I was able to predict putative receptors of the tsetse repellent components and an attractant odour. However, many ORs were neutral, showing they were not activated by the odorants, demonstrating the selectivity of the technique as well as the receptors. In my fourth chapter, I investigated the OBPs structures and their interaction with odorants molecules. I demonstrated that OBPs are expressed both in the antenna, as well as in other tissues, such as legs. I also demonstrated that there are variations in the expression of OBPs between tissues as well as sexes. I also demonstrated that odorants induced a fast alteration in OBP mRNA expression, some odorants induced a decrease in the transcription of genes corresponding to the activated OBP and others increased the expression by many fold in OBPs in live insect, others were neutral after 5 hours of exposure. Moreover, with subsequent behavioural data showed that the behavioural response of G. f. fuscipes toward 1-octen-3-ol decreased significantly when 1-octen-3-ol putative OBPs were silenced with feeding of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). In summary, our finding whereby odorant exposure affects the OBPs mRNA, their physiochemical properties and the silencing of these OBPs affected the behavioural response demonstrate that the OBPs are involved in odour detection that affect the percept of the given odorant. The expression of OBPs in olfactory tissues, antenna and their interaction with odorant and their effect on behavioural response when silenced shows their direct involvement in odour detection and reception. Furthermore, their expression in other tissues such as legs indicates they might also have role in other physiological functions, such as taste.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Tsetse flies are the biological vectors of human and animal trypanosomiasis and hence representant medical and veterinary importance. The sense of smell plays a significant role in tsetse and its ecological interaction, such as finding blood meal source, resting, and larvicidal sites and for mating. Tsetse olfactory behaviour can be exploited for their management; however, olfactory studies in tsetse flies are still fragmentary. Here in my PhD thesis, using scanning electron microscopy, electrophysiology, behaviour, bioinformatics and molecular biology techniques, I have investigated tsetse flies (Glossina fuscipes fuscipes) olfaction using behaviourally well studied odorants, tsetse repellent by comparing with attractant odour. Insect olfaction is mediated by olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs), located in olfactory sensilla, which are cuticular structures exposed to the environment through pore and create a platform for chemical communication. In the sensilla shaft the dendrite of OSNs are housed, which are protected by called the sensillum lymph produced by support cells and contains a variety of olfactory proteins, including the odorant binding protein (OBP) and chemosensory proteins (CSP). While on the dendrite of OSNs are expressed olfactory receptors. In my PhD, studies I tried to decipher the sense of smell in tsetse fly. In the second chapter, I demonstrated that G. f. fuscipes is equipped with diverse olfactory sensilla, that various from basiconic, trichoid and coeloconic. I also demonstrated, there is shape, length, number difference between sensilla types and sexual dimorphism. There is a major difference between male and female, while male has the unique basiconic sensilla, club shaped found in the pits, which is absent from female pits. In my third chapter, I investigated the odorant receptors which are expressed on the dendrite of the olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs). G. f. fuscipes has 42 ORs, which were not functionally characterised. I used behaviourally well studied odorants, tsetse repellents, composed of four components blend. I demonstrated that tsetse repellent is also a strong antifeedant for both G. pallidipes and G. f. fuscipes using feeding bioassays as compared to the attractant odour, adding the value of tsetse repellent. However, the attractant odour enhanced the feeding index. Using DREAM (deorphanization of receptors based on expression alterations of mRNA levels). I found that in G. f. fuscipes, following a short in vivo exposure to the individual tsetse repellent component as well as an attractant volatile chemical, OSNs that respond to these compounds altered their mRNA expression in two opposite direction, significant downregulation and upregulation in their number of transcripts corresponding to the OR that they expressed and interacted with odorant. Also, I found that the odorants with opposite valence already segregate distinctly at the cellular and molecular target at the periphery, which is the reception of odorants by OSNs, which is the basis of sophisticated olfactory behaviour. Deorphanization of ORs in none model insect is a challenge, here by combining DREAM with molecular dynamics, as docking score, physiology and homology modelling with Drosophila a well-studied model insects, I was able to predict putative receptors of the tsetse repellent components and an attractant odour. However, many ORs were neutral, showing they were not activated by the odorants, demonstrating the selectivity of the technique as well as the receptors. In my fourth chapter, I investigated the OBPs structures and their interaction with odorants molecules. I demonstrated that OBPs are expressed both in the antenna, as well as in other tissues, such as legs. I also demonstrated that there are variations in the expression of OBPs between tissues as well as sexes. I also demonstrated that odorants induced a fast alteration in OBP mRNA expression, some odorants induced a decrease in the transcription of genes corresponding to the activated OBP and others increased the expression by many fold in OBPs in live insect, others were neutral after 5 hours of exposure. Moreover, with subsequent behavioural data showed that the behavioural response of G. f. fuscipes toward 1-octen-3-ol decreased significantly when 1-octen-3-ol putative OBPs were silenced with feeding of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). In summary, our finding whereby odorant exposure affects the OBPs mRNA, their physiochemical properties and the silencing of these OBPs affected the behavioural response demonstrate that the OBPs are involved in odour detection that affect the percept of the given odorant. The expression of OBPs in olfactory tissues, antenna and their interaction with odorant and their effect on behavioural response when silenced shows their direct involvement in odour detection and reception. Furthermore, their expression in other tissues such as legs indicates they might also have role in other physiological functions, such as taste.