Projetos de estabilidade de escavações mineiras por meio de estudos de caracterização do maciço rochoso com o uso da mecânica de rochas são indispensáveis para otimizar o aproveitamento das jazidas, garantir segurança nas operações de lavra e minimizar os impactos ambientais decorrentes da instabilidade dos taludes da cava. Nesta dissertação utilizou-se de critérios recentes de ruptura em rocha, para obtenção de dados de entrada em métodos já clássicos de análise da estabilidade de taludes em maciços rochosos para a cava de dolomito lavrada a céu aberto. Os critérios utilizados serão avaliados com relação à compatibilidade dos resultados obtidos com sua aplicação e a coerência com a situação atual observada na lavra em desenvolvimento. Análises sobre a paralisação da lavra em decorrência dos problemas de instabilidade também serão avaliadas e discutidas. Para ilustrar esta dissertação foi eleita a jazida de dolomito localizada no Sinclinal do Gandarela em virtude dos problemas de instabilidade encontrados na cava. As conclusões finais são apresentadas nos últimos itens deste trabalho. / The design of stable excavations using rock masses characterization with the tools provided by rock mechanics, are indispensable for optimizing the economic exploitation of ore deposits, to ensure the safety in the mining works and to minimize the environmental impacts deriving of the open pit slopes instability. In this Dissertation, for obtain the input data for classic methods of rocky slopes stability analyses, it is used the most recent criteria of rock mass failure applied for an open pit mine of dolomite. The utilized criteria compatibility will be evaluated by the results obtained with their utilization and the coherence with the real situation verified at the developing mine. Will be evaluated and discussed the analyses about the stoppage of the mine works due to the slope instability problems. To illustrate this Dissertation are elected a dolomite ore deposit situated at the Gandarela Synclinal on account of the instability problems that occurred in the mine pit. The final conclusions are listed in the items presented at the end of this work.

Projetos de estabilidade de escavações mineiras por meio de estudos de caracterização do maciço rochoso com o uso da mecânica de rochas são indispensáveis para otimizar o aproveitamento das jazidas, garantir segurança nas operações de lavra e minimizar os impactos ambientais decorrentes da instabilidade dos taludes da cava. Nesta dissertação utilizou-se de critérios recentes de ruptura em rocha, para obtenção de dados de entrada em métodos já clássicos de análise da estabilidade de taludes em maciços rochosos para a cava de dolomito lavrada a céu aberto. Os critérios utilizados serão avaliados com relação à compatibilidade dos resultados obtidos com sua aplicação e a coerência com a situação atual observada na lavra em desenvolvimento. Análises sobre a paralisação da lavra em decorrência dos problemas de instabilidade também serão avaliadas e discutidas. Para ilustrar esta dissertação foi eleita a jazida de dolomito localizada no Sinclinal do Gandarela em virtude dos problemas de instabilidade encontrados na cava. As conclusões finais são apresentadas nos últimos itens deste trabalho. / The design of stable excavations using rock masses characterization with the tools provided by rock mechanics, are indispensable for optimizing the economic exploitation of ore deposits, to ensure the safety in the mining works and to minimize the environmental impacts deriving of the open pit slopes instability. In this Dissertation, for obtain the input data for classic methods of rocky slopes stability analyses, it is used the most recent criteria of rock mass failure applied for an open pit mine of dolomite. The utilized criteria compatibility will be evaluated by the results obtained with their utilization and the coherence with the real situation verified at the developing mine. Will be evaluated and discussed the analyses about the stoppage of the mine works due to the slope instability problems. To illustrate this Dissertation are elected a dolomite ore deposit situated at the Gandarela Synclinal on account of the instability problems that occurred in the mine pit. The final conclusions are listed in the items presented at the end of this work.

Na última década, muitas minas a céu aberto têm alcançado alturas de 600 metros ou mais, algumas com perspectiva em projeto de alcançar mais de 1100 m. A literatura especializada revela que os mecanismos de ruptura para taludes altos ainda não são bem entendidos. Existem dúvidas tanto em relação aos mecanismos de ruptura, como quanto à estimativa da resistência do maciço rochoso em tal escala. Recentemente, há uma tendência crescente da aplicação de análises numéricas para estudar a estabilidade de taludes altos, mas ainda não se consegue reproduzir todos os fenômenos envolvidos. Análises reportadas na literatura consideram apenas a configuração final da cava, sem levar em conta o processo evolutivo da escavação, e o dano induzido ao maciço decorrente deste processo. Este trabalho analisa este efeito e suas conseqüências na avaliação da segurança. Realizaram-se análises bidimensionais de tensão-deformação em taludes de rocha. Tais análises foram realizadas com modelos elástico linear e elasto plástico de amolecimento da coesão e de endurecimento do atrito, considerando a mobilização não simultânea das componentes de resistência no critério de Mohr-Coulomb, e a danificação do maciço rochoso. Avaliação preliminar da segurança de um talude hipotético mostrou que estas considerações são muito importantes. Foram considerados a altura do talude, o ângulo do talude e as tensões in situ. 0 histórico de tensões modifica os parâmetros de resistência do maciço ao longo do talude por danificação. A região do pé do talude, em cada estágio de escavação, está sujeita a concentração de tensões induzidas que geram danificação ao maciço nestas áreas. A danificação em regiões do pé do talude pode explicar o inicio do processo de rupturas do tipo progressivo. / Along the last decade, many open pit mines have reached up to 600 meters or more in height, and some of them are planned to reach more than 1100 meters. The specialized literature shows that the failure mechanisms for high rock slopes are not well understood as yet. Doubts exist in relation to failure mechanisms, as well as to rock mass strength estimation in such scale. In recent years, there is a growing trend for the use of numerical analyses in order to study high rock slope stability, but they are not capable to reproduce all the phenomena involved. Analyses reported in the literature consider only the final configuration of the open pit, without taking into consideration the excavation evolution process, and damage induced to the rock mass resulting from this process. This work analyzes this effect and its consequences on the slope safety evaluation. Two dimensional stress strain analyses in rock slopes are described. Such analyses were conducted with linear elastic model and elasto plastic strain cohesion softening - friction hardening model considering the non-simultaneous mobilization of the strength components in the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, by including the rock mass damage. An approximate safety evaluation of a hypothetical slope shows that these considerations are very important. The stress path modifies the rock mass strength parameters close to the slope face by damage. The regions of the slope toe at each excavation stage are subjected to induced stress concentration causing damage to rock. This damage can explain the beginning of the progressive failure mechanism.

One of the most important properties of an explosive is its velocity of detonation (VOD). It is essential that the explosive should detonate at its optimum rate and release sufficient detonation pressure to get good fragmentation under the existing field conditions. The main objectives of this research study are to investigate the effects of explosive type, blast hole diameter, and degree of confinement on the VOD of bulk ANFO and bulk emulsion in Kumtor Open Pit Gold Mine. In this study, the continuous resistance wire method is employed to measure in-situ VOD of both bulk ANFO and bulk emulsion. The VOD values are measured for different hole diameters and under different confinements for both explosives. The ideality of bulk ANFO and bulk emulsion is calculated by comparing the in-situ measured VOD&rsquo / s and their ideal detonation values. It is found that the VOD of both explosives increases as the blast hole diameter and the degree of confinement increases. In addition to this, VOD of bulk ANFO decreases when it gets wet in the blast hole. Another finding is that, proportion of bulk emulsion ingredients has influence on its VOD. This research study provides a good understanding to use suitable explosive in existing rock conditions in Kumtor Open Pit Gold Mine.

Im Ergebnis der Arbeit kann eine Einbeziehung von Haldenerzen anstelle von Tagebauerzen unter Beibehaltung der wirtschaftlichen Kennzahlen wie z. B. Rentabilität und Gewinn durchgeführt werden. Dafür wurden entsprechende Einbeziehungskriterien für das Haldenerz entwickelt. Bei der Einbeziehung wird ein Teil der Tagebaugeräte freigesetzt, welche für den Abbau von zusätzlichem Abraum verwendet werden können. Diese Maßnahme bietet die Möglichkeit des Abbaues von Abraumspitzen und der Kostensteuerung. Letztere sieht eine Erhöhung der Abraumförderung in den Perioden hoher Preise und eine Verringerung bei niedrigeren Preisen vor. Für die Preisänderungen wurden Einbeziehungskriterien entwickelt, die den Kapitalwert bzw. Gewinn maximieren. Dabei wurden die Einbeziehungskriterien so modifiziert, dass eine Stilllegung der Tagebaue während der Einbeziehung vermieden werden kann.

This thesis is aimed at studying the open pit truck- shovel haulage systems using computer simulation approach. The main goal of the study is to enhance the analysis and comparison of heuristic truck dispatching policies currently available and search for an adaptive rule applicable to open pit mines. For this purpose, a stochastic truck dispatching and production simulation program is developed for a medium size open pit mine consisting of several production faces and a single dump site using GPSS/H software. Eight basic rules are modeled in separate program files. The program considers all components of truck cycle and normal distribution is used to model all these variables. The program asks the user to enter the number of trucks initially assigned to each shovel site. Full-factorial simulation experiments are made to investigate the effects of several factors including the dispatching rules, the number of trucks operating, the number of shovels operating, the variability in truck loading, hauling and return times, the distance between shovels and dump site, and availability of shovel and truck resources. The breakdown of shovel and trucks are modeled using exponential distribution. Three performance measures are selected as truck production, overall shovel utilization and overall truck utilizations. Statistical analysis of the simulation experiments is done using ANOVA method with Minitab software. Regression analysis gives coefficient of determination values, R2, of 56.7 %, 84.1 %, and 79.6 % for the three performance measures, respectively. Also, Tukey&rsquo / s method of mean comparison test is carried out to compare the basic dispatching rules. From the results of statistical analysis, it is concluded that the effects of basic truck dispatching rules on the system performance are not significant. But, the main factors affecting the performances are the number of trucks, the number of shovels, the distance between the shovels and dump site, finally the availability of shovel and truck resources. Also, there are significant interaction effects between these main factors. Finally, an adaptive rule using the standardized utilization of shovels and trucks is developed.

Na última década, muitas minas a céu aberto têm alcançado alturas de 600 metros ou mais, algumas com perspectiva em projeto de alcançar mais de 1100 m. A literatura especializada revela que os mecanismos de ruptura para taludes altos ainda não são bem entendidos. Existem dúvidas tanto em relação aos mecanismos de ruptura, como quanto à estimativa da resistência do maciço rochoso em tal escala. Recentemente, há uma tendência crescente da aplicação de análises numéricas para estudar a estabilidade de taludes altos, mas ainda não se consegue reproduzir todos os fenômenos envolvidos. Análises reportadas na literatura consideram apenas a configuração final da cava, sem levar em conta o processo evolutivo da escavação, e o dano induzido ao maciço decorrente deste processo. Este trabalho analisa este efeito e suas conseqüências na avaliação da segurança. Realizaram-se análises bidimensionais de tensão-deformação em taludes de rocha. Tais análises foram realizadas com modelos elástico linear e elasto plástico de amolecimento da coesão e de endurecimento do atrito, considerando a mobilização não simultânea das componentes de resistência no critério de Mohr-Coulomb, e a danificação do maciço rochoso. Avaliação preliminar da segurança de um talude hipotético mostrou que estas considerações são muito importantes. Foram considerados a altura do talude, o ângulo do talude e as tensões in situ. 0 histórico de tensões modifica os parâmetros de resistência do maciço ao longo do talude por danificação. A região do pé do talude, em cada estágio de escavação, está sujeita a concentração de tensões induzidas que geram danificação ao maciço nestas áreas. A danificação em regiões do pé do talude pode explicar o inicio do processo de rupturas do tipo progressivo. / Along the last decade, many open pit mines have reached up to 600 meters or more in height, and some of them are planned to reach more than 1100 meters. The specialized literature shows that the failure mechanisms for high rock slopes are not well understood as yet. Doubts exist in relation to failure mechanisms, as well as to rock mass strength estimation in such scale. In recent years, there is a growing trend for the use of numerical analyses in order to study high rock slope stability, but they are not capable to reproduce all the phenomena involved. Analyses reported in the literature consider only the final configuration of the open pit, without taking into consideration the excavation evolution process, and damage induced to the rock mass resulting from this process. This work analyzes this effect and its consequences on the slope safety evaluation. Two dimensional stress strain analyses in rock slopes are described. Such analyses were conducted with linear elastic model and elasto plastic strain cohesion softening - friction hardening model considering the non-simultaneous mobilization of the strength components in the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, by including the rock mass damage. An approximate safety evaluation of a hypothetical slope shows that these considerations are very important. The stress path modifies the rock mass strength parameters close to the slope face by damage. The regions of the slope toe at each excavation stage are subjected to induced stress concentration causing damage to rock. This damage can explain the beginning of the progressive failure mechanism.

Im Lausitzer Braunkohlerevier wurden eine Vielzahl von Braunkohletagebauen stillgelegt und rekultiviert. In den locker gelagerten und überwiegend aus sandigem Boden bestehenden Kippen kam es im Zuge des Grundwasseranstieges seit ca. 2006 zu einer erheblichen Anzahl von Bodenverflüssigungsereignissen. Diese stellen eine Gefährdung für Personen dar und führten daher zu Sperrungen der Kippenflächen. Das Ziel der Arbeit war es, das Risiko für Personenschäden durch Bodenverflüssigungsereignisse auf Innenkippen des Lausitzer Braunkohlereviers zu ermitteln. Die Ergebnisse bilden eine Möglichkeit, Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung der Sicherheit auf der Kippe angepasst zu planen und damit eine bessere gesellschaftliche Akzeptanz zu erreichen. An Beispielen wird in der Arbeit dargestellt, wie der Grad der Gefährdung von Personen durch unterschiedliche Prozesse ermittelt und dargestellt werden kann. Die einfachen physikalischen bzw. empirischen Zusammenhänge bilden die Grundlage zur Ermittlung des Risikos, das Eintrittswahrscheinlichkeit und Schadensausmaß eines Bodenverflüssigungsereignisses berücksichtigt. Der Prozess der spontanen Bodenverflüssigung auf Kippen wird beschrieben. Es wird herausgearbeitet, dass die Auswirkungen eines Bodenverflüssigungsereignisses wesentlich von der Gestalt der Geländeoberfläche und der Lage des Grundwasserspiegels relativ zur Geländeoberfläche abhängen. Für die Geländemorphologie wird die Maßgeblichkeitszahl als Kenngröße genutzt, um zusammen mit dem Grundwasserflurabstand eine empirische Abhängigkeit der Auswirkungen eines Bodenverflüssigungsereignisses zu begründen. Mit diesen Ergebnissen wird auf Basis eines digitalen Geländemodells und eines Grundwassermodells eine Gefährdungskarte abgeleitet. Durch die räumliche Auswertung der Gefährdungskarte und einer angenommenen Zahl von Personen, die auf der geplanten Nutzung der Kippen beruht, wird das kollektive Risiko für Personenschäden berechnet. In die Berechnung geht auch die Eintrittswahrscheinlichkeit von Bodenverflüssigungsereignissen ein, die tagebaubezogen auf Grundlage von Auswertungen von digitalen Geländemodellen im Zeitraum von 2006 bis 2018 ermittelt wurde. Das ermittelte Risiko durch Bodenverflüssigung wird mit Risiken des Alltags verglichen. Darauf aufbauend wird ein Grenzrisiko vorgeschlagen. Die Ergebnisse werden interpretiert und es wird eine Empfehlung abgegeben, wie mit dem ermittelten Risiko umgegangen werden kann. / In the Lusatian lignite mining area, a large number of opencast lignite mines were closed down and recultivated. In the loosely stored tips, which mainly consist of sandy soil, a considerable number of soil liquefaction events have occurred in the course of the groundwater rise since approx. 2006. These represent a hazard to persons and therefore led to the closure of the tipping areas. The aim of the work was to determine the risk of personal injury caused by soil liquefaction events on inner tips of the Lusatian brown coal mining area. The results provide an opportunity to plan actions to improve safety on the dump and thus achieve better social acceptance. The paper uses examples to illustrate how the degree of risk to people posed by different processes can be determined and represented. The simple physical and empirical correlations form the basis for determining the risk which takes into account the probability of occurrence and the extent of damage of a soil liquefaction event. The process of spontaneous soil liquefaction on tips is described. It is worked out that the effects of a soil liquefaction event depend essentially on the shape of the terrain surface and the position of the groundwater level relative to the terrain surface. For the terrain morphology, the significance number is used as a parameter in order to establish an empirical dependence of the effects of a soil liquefaction event together with the groundwater level. With these results, a hazard map is derived on the basis of a digital terrain model and a groundwater model. By spatial evaluation of the hazard map and an assumed number of persons based on the planned use of the tips, the collective risk of personal injury is calculated. The calculation also includes the probability of soil liquefaction events occurring, which was determined on the basis of evaluations of digital terrain models in the period from 2006 to 2018. The calculated risk from soil liquefaction is compared with everyday risks. Based on this, a limiting risk is proposed. The results are interpreted and a recommendation is given on how to deal with the identified risk.

Im Ergebnis der Arbeit kann eine Einbeziehung von Haldenerzen anstelle von Tagebauerzen unter Beibehaltung der wirtschaftlichen Kennzahlen wie z. B. Rentabilität und Gewinn durchgeführt werden. Dafür wurden entsprechende Einbeziehungskriterien für das Haldenerz entwickelt. Bei der Einbeziehung wird ein Teil der Tagebaugeräte freigesetzt, welche für den Abbau von zusätzlichem Abraum verwendet werden können. Diese Maßnahme bietet die Möglichkeit des Abbaues von Abraumspitzen und der Kostensteuerung. Letztere sieht eine Erhöhung der Abraumförderung in den Perioden hoher Preise und eine Verringerung bei niedrigeren Preisen vor. Für die Preisänderungen wurden Einbeziehungskriterien entwickelt, die den Kapitalwert bzw. Gewinn maximieren. Dabei wurden die Einbeziehungskriterien so modifiziert, dass eine Stilllegung der Tagebaue während der Einbeziehung vermieden werden kann.

Braunkohle ist aktuell immer noch ein wichtiger Rohstoff für die Energieversorgung in Deutschland. Ein großes Abbaugebiet befindet sich in Nordrhein-Westfalen. Im sogenannten rheinischen Braunkohlenrevier liegen mächtige Braunkohleflöze, welche seit einigen Jahrzehnten im Tagebaubetrieb abgebaut werden. Allerdings fallen auch große Mengen an Abraum (die Deckschichten über der Braunkohle) an, welche meist auf der, dem Abbauort, gegenüberliegenden Seite, wieder verkippt werden. Dort bilden die verkippten Massen eine Böschung, die im Fall des Tagebaus Hambach ein Böschungssystem mit über 400m Höhe erreicht hat. Diese sich ständig verändernden Böschungen müssen, wie alle hohen Böschungen, durch Fachpersonal auf ihre Standsicherheit überprüft werden. Für diese Standsicherheitsberechnungen bedarf es Kennwerte, u. a. die undrainierte Scherfestigkeit für die Nachweise der kurzfristigen Standsicherheit, für die vorliegenden verkippten Böden. Diese liegen nach der Verkippung meist heterogen vor und verändern durch eine fortschreitende Konsolidation ihren Zustand. Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Bestimmung des Kennwertes der undrainierten Scherfestigkeit in fein- und gemischtkörnigen Böden. Dazu werden zunächst die Klassifikations- und Zustandseigenschaften während der Verkippung der Böden für die in den Tagebauen Inden und Hambach verwendeten Materialklassen vorgestellt. Dabei wird auch auf die Besonderheiten der Böden im Tagebau, wie z.B. die Zustandsänderung während des Transportes oder die vorliegende Heterogenität, eingegangen. Es werden analytische und numerische Prognosemodelle zur Bestimmung der undrainierten Scherfestigkeit vorgestellt. Die Grundlage dieser Modelle bilden die Konsolidationstheorien, mit welchen sich die Zustandsvariablen, wie die Porenzahl oder die effektive Spannungen, berechnen lassen. Über verfügbare Stoffmodelle, wie z.B. das hypoplastische Modell nach Mašín können anhand der Zustandsvariablen die undrainierten Scherfestigkeiten abgeleitet werden. Mit den in dieser Arbeit verwendeten Modellen lassen sich undrainierte Scherfestigkeitskennwerte zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten prognostizieren, mit denen wiederum z.B. Standsicherheitsberechnungen von Böschungen durchgeführt werden können. Die statistischen Auswertungen der Klassifikationseigenschaften und Zustände erlauben eine Beurteilung von im Tagebaubetrieb häufig verwendeten Kennwerten (z.B. Fließgrenze oder Wassergehalt) und deren Streubreiten innerhalb der Materialklassen. / Lignite was and still is an essential source for producing energy in Germany. One huge extraction site is located in North-Rhine-Westphalia (in between Mönchengladbach, Cologne and Aachen). The so called Rhenish lignite district contains very thick lignite deposits, which are mined in open pit mines since a few decades. There are huge overburdens (on top on the lignite) which are transported and dumped on the opposite to the excavation side. The dumped soil masses create slope systems, that can amount to 400m of height (in open pit mine Hambach). These large slopes undergo permanent changes and have to be assessed considering their safety and stability by specialists. Characteristic properties regarding shear strength of the heterogeneous fine- and mixed grained soils are required for such calculations. The main challenge is the description of the state of the soil, as it is permanently changing due to consolidation. One essential characteristic is the undrained shear strength. The main focus of this thesis is the determination of the undrained shear strength. Therefore, the soil properties are determined with classification tests and the state of the soils at the time of dumping is assessed. The results are categorised using the material classes of the open pit mines Inden and Hambach. The particularities of dumped soils in open pit mines are shown, for instance the change of state during transport or the heterogeneity. Moreover, analytical and numerical models are employed to predict the undrained shear strength. The basis of all these models are consolidation theories, which are applied to determine the state variables such as void ratio and effective stresses. The undrained shear strength can then be predicted by using constitutive models such as the hypoplastic model for clays according Mašín. Using the approach presented in this thesis the undrained shear strength can be predicted and employed for example for slope stability analyses. The statistic evaluation of the soil properties allows a review of the soil characteristics that are typically employed in open pit mining. Furthermore, the scattering of properties of the material classes in the open pit mines can be assessed.