Introdução: a disfunção de proteínas que atuam no controle do ciclo celular está diretamente relacionada ao processo inicial de tumorigênese. A expressão de ciclina A em tumores de mama está relacionada à menor sobrevida livre de doença (SLD) e também à menor sobrevida global (SG). Da mesma maneira, a reduzida expressão de p27 em tumores de mama está relacionada à pior prognóstico. Ambas as alteraçõestêm sido relacionadas com tumores de alto grau histológico, maior diâmetro no momento do diagnóstico e expressão de c-erb-B2. Não há dados referentes à resposta clínica destes tumores ao tratamento neoadjuvante. Objetivos: o objetivo deste estudo foi analisar as taxas de positividade de expressão de ciclina A e proteína p27 em tumores de mama localmente avançados, antes e após quimioterapia neoadjuvante com Docetaxel (75 mg/m 2 ) e Epirrubicina (60 mg/m 2 ), a relação delas com resposta ao tratamento, SLD e SG. Metodologia: foram incluídas 92 pacientes tratadas no período entre janeiro de 1998 e dezembro de 2004, com aplicação de pelo menos dois ciclos de quimioterapia neoadjuvante a cada 21 dias e submetidas à cirurgia para tratamento loco-regional. A análise da expressão deciclina A e p27 foi feita por meio de imunohistoquímica, tendo sido considerados positivos os casos com expressão acima de 30 e 50%, respectivamente. Resultados: a mediana do número de ciclos de quimioterapia neoadjuvante foi de três (variando entre 2 e 7) e do tempo de seguimento de 40 meses (11 - 100). Observamos positividade de ciclina A antes da quimioterapia em 27 pacientes (29,3%) e de p27 em 42 pacientes (45,7%). Após a quimioterapia, a positividade para ciclina A foi de16,3% (15 pacientes) e de p27 de 29,3% (27 pacientes). A expressão de p27 nãofoi preditiva de resposta clínica ou patológica, SLD e SG. As taxas de resposta clínica foram iguais nas pacientes com e sem expressão de ciclina A antes daquimioterapia e a resposta patológica também foi semelhante. A manutenção de expressão de ciclina A após a quimioterapia esteve associada à menor resposta clínica completa (6,7 x 27,3%, p = 0,04), mas não à resposta patológica. Também esteve relacionada à menor SLD (p = 0,006) e à menor SG (p = 0,003). Não observamos relação entre expressão de ciclina A e p27 com acometimento ganglionar, grau histológico, receptores hormonais e c-erb-B2, diâmetro tumoral e estadio clínico. Na análise multivariada,a idade de menos de 41 anos no diagnóstico, acometimento de dois ou mais gânglios axilares e a expressão de ciclina A após a quimioterapia foram os fatores relacionados á óbito pela doença. Conclusões: observamos que a manutenção de expressão de ciclina A em tumores de mama localmente avançados após a quimioterapia neoadjuvante está relacionada à pior SLD e SG. Estes achados podem ser explicados pelo fato da expressão desta proteína identificar um grupo de tumores com alto índice de proliferação e maior agressividade. No nosso estudo, a expressão de p27 não foi preditiva de resposta ao tratamento neoadjuvante, SLD ou SG. / Introduction: the dysfunction in proteins that act controlling role in the cell cycle is directly related to oncogenesis initial processes. Cyclin A high expression in breast tumors is related to poor Disease Free Survival (DFS) and Global Survival (GS). Breast tumors lacking p27 expression are also related to worse prognosis. Both are associated with high grade tumors, larger diameters at diagnosis and higher c-erb-B2 expression. There are no available data comparing these proteins to clinical response in neoadjuvant therapy setting. Objectives: the purpose of our study is analyze thepositivity rates of cyclin A and p27 expression in locally advanced breast cancer (LABC), before and after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NCT) with Docetaxel (75 mg/m 2 ) and Epirrubicin (60 mg/m 2 ), their relation to treatment response, DFS and GS. Methods: ninety two patients were included between 1998 and 2004. They received at least two chemotherapy courses with 21 days intervals and were submitted to surgery, as local therapy, followed by radiotherapy if treated with breast conservative surgery. The expression ofcyclin A and p27 were evaluated through immunohistochemistry and only cases with expression higher than 30 and 50% (respectively) were considered positives. Results: the median chemotherapy cycle number was three (2 - 7) and the median follow-up time was 40 months (11 - 100). We observed cyclin A positivity before NCT in 27 patients (29,3%) and p27 in 42 (45,7%). After NCT, the positivity rates for cyclin A and p 27 were 16,3% (15 patients) and 29,3% (27 patients), respectively. The p27 expression wasnot predictive of clinical response, pathological response, DFS or GS. Cyclin A expression before chemo was also not predictive of clinical or pathological response. Expression of cyclin A after neoadjuvant therapy was associated to poorer clinical response (6,7 x 27,3%, p = 0,04) but not to pathological response. The maintenance of cyclin A expression after chemotherapy was also related to poor DFS (p = 0,006) and GS (p = 0,003). We were not able to findany relation between cyclin A and p27 expression and node status, histological grade, hormone receptors, c-erb-B2, tumor diameter and clinical staging. In multivariate analysis, age before 41 years, two or more positive lymph nodes and cyclin A expression were related to death by cancer. Conclusion: we concluded that p27 expression was not predictive of neoadjuvant response, DFS or GS. In contrary, the maintenance of cyclin A expression in LABC after neoadjuvant chemotherapy is predictive of worse prognosis, poor DFS and GS. This is probably due tothese tumors high proliferation and aggressiveness.

A expressão de diversas proteínas do ciclo celular tem sido estudada em vários tipos de lesões malignas. Entre as principais está a p27, que é codificada pelo gene supressor de tumor de mesmo nome, e que já foi encontrada alterada em carcinomas, inclusive os intra-orais. Outra proteína que atua diretamente no controle do ciclo celular é a c-jun, que é codificada por um protooncogene, e através de outras vias de sinalização acaba agindo como um regulador positivo do ciclo. O presente estudo visou comparar as expressões imunoistoquímicas das proteínas p27 e c-jun, através do método da estreptavidina-biotina em 45 casos de displasia epitelial agrupados em diferentes graus (atipia discreta, moderada e intensa), e 20 casos de carcinoma epidermóide intra-oral, na tentativa de elucidar o papel e a relação existente entre estas proteínas. Foi observado uma diminuição dos níveis de p27 e um aumento significativo da c-jun nos casos com graus elevados de displasia epitelial e carcinoma epidermóide. A análise estatística indicou uma correlação inversa estatísticamente significativa entre as expressões de p27 e c-jun. Os resultados sugerem as alterações destas proteínas como um importante evento no processo de carcinogênese intra-oral. / The expression of many cell cycle proteins has been studied in a number of malignant lesions. Among the main ones is the p27, which is encoded by the same name tumor suppressor gene, and it is altered in carcinomas, including oral cancers. Another protein that plays a role in the cell cycle control is the c-jun, which is encoded by a proto-oncogene, and acts as a positive regulator of the cell cycle, through other signaling pathways. The present study aimed to compare the immunohistochemical expression of p27 and c-jun proteins, using the streptavidinbiotin method, in 45 cases of epithelial dysplasia, classified in different degrees (mild, moderate and intense), and 20 cases of oral squamous cells carcinoma, in an attempt to elucidate the role and the relationship between these proteins. It was observed a decrease of p27 levels and a substantial increase of c-jun in cases with the highest degrees of epithelial dysplasia. The statistical analysis showed a significant inverse correlation between p27 and c-jun expressions. These results suggest these proteins alterations as an important event in the carcinogenic process. p27, c-jun, Immunohistochemistry, Squamous cells carcinoma, Epithelial dysplasia

A expressão de diversas proteínas do ciclo celular tem sido estudada em vários tipos de lesões malignas. Entre as principais está a p27, que é codificada pelo gene supressor de tumor de mesmo nome, e que já foi encontrada alterada em carcinomas, inclusive os intra-orais. Outra proteína que atua diretamente no controle do ciclo celular é a c-jun, que é codificada por um protooncogene, e através de outras vias de sinalização acaba agindo como um regulador positivo do ciclo. O presente estudo visou comparar as expressões imunoistoquímicas das proteínas p27 e c-jun, através do método da estreptavidina-biotina em 45 casos de displasia epitelial agrupados em diferentes graus (atipia discreta, moderada e intensa), e 20 casos de carcinoma epidermóide intra-oral, na tentativa de elucidar o papel e a relação existente entre estas proteínas. Foi observado uma diminuição dos níveis de p27 e um aumento significativo da c-jun nos casos com graus elevados de displasia epitelial e carcinoma epidermóide. A análise estatística indicou uma correlação inversa estatísticamente significativa entre as expressões de p27 e c-jun. Os resultados sugerem as alterações destas proteínas como um importante evento no processo de carcinogênese intra-oral. / The expression of many cell cycle proteins has been studied in a number of malignant lesions. Among the main ones is the p27, which is encoded by the same name tumor suppressor gene, and it is altered in carcinomas, including oral cancers. Another protein that plays a role in the cell cycle control is the c-jun, which is encoded by a proto-oncogene, and acts as a positive regulator of the cell cycle, through other signaling pathways. The present study aimed to compare the immunohistochemical expression of p27 and c-jun proteins, using the streptavidinbiotin method, in 45 cases of epithelial dysplasia, classified in different degrees (mild, moderate and intense), and 20 cases of oral squamous cells carcinoma, in an attempt to elucidate the role and the relationship between these proteins. It was observed a decrease of p27 levels and a substantial increase of c-jun in cases with the highest degrees of epithelial dysplasia. The statistical analysis showed a significant inverse correlation between p27 and c-jun expressions. These results suggest these proteins alterations as an important event in the carcinogenic process. p27, c-jun, Immunohistochemistry, Squamous cells carcinoma, Epithelial dysplasia

Introdução: a disfunção de proteínas que atuam no controle do ciclo celular está diretamente relacionada ao processo inicial de tumorigênese. A expressão de ciclina A em tumores de mama está relacionada à menor sobrevida livre de doença (SLD) e também à menor sobrevida global (SG). Da mesma maneira, a reduzida expressão de p27 em tumores de mama está relacionada à pior prognóstico. Ambas as alteraçõestêm sido relacionadas com tumores de alto grau histológico, maior diâmetro no momento do diagnóstico e expressão de c-erb-B2. Não há dados referentes à resposta clínica destes tumores ao tratamento neoadjuvante. Objetivos: o objetivo deste estudo foi analisar as taxas de positividade de expressão de ciclina A e proteína p27 em tumores de mama localmente avançados, antes e após quimioterapia neoadjuvante com Docetaxel (75 mg/m 2 ) e Epirrubicina (60 mg/m 2 ), a relação delas com resposta ao tratamento, SLD e SG. Metodologia: foram incluídas 92 pacientes tratadas no período entre janeiro de 1998 e dezembro de 2004, com aplicação de pelo menos dois ciclos de quimioterapia neoadjuvante a cada 21 dias e submetidas à cirurgia para tratamento loco-regional. A análise da expressão deciclina A e p27 foi feita por meio de imunohistoquímica, tendo sido considerados positivos os casos com expressão acima de 30 e 50%, respectivamente. Resultados: a mediana do número de ciclos de quimioterapia neoadjuvante foi de três (variando entre 2 e 7) e do tempo de seguimento de 40 meses (11 - 100). Observamos positividade de ciclina A antes da quimioterapia em 27 pacientes (29,3%) e de p27 em 42 pacientes (45,7%). Após a quimioterapia, a positividade para ciclina A foi de16,3% (15 pacientes) e de p27 de 29,3% (27 pacientes). A expressão de p27 nãofoi preditiva de resposta clínica ou patológica, SLD e SG. As taxas de resposta clínica foram iguais nas pacientes com e sem expressão de ciclina A antes daquimioterapia e a resposta patológica também foi semelhante. A manutenção de expressão de ciclina A após a quimioterapia esteve associada à menor resposta clínica completa (6,7 x 27,3%, p = 0,04), mas não à resposta patológica. Também esteve relacionada à menor SLD (p = 0,006) e à menor SG (p = 0,003). Não observamos relação entre expressão de ciclina A e p27 com acometimento ganglionar, grau histológico, receptores hormonais e c-erb-B2, diâmetro tumoral e estadio clínico. Na análise multivariada,a idade de menos de 41 anos no diagnóstico, acometimento de dois ou mais gânglios axilares e a expressão de ciclina A após a quimioterapia foram os fatores relacionados á óbito pela doença. Conclusões: observamos que a manutenção de expressão de ciclina A em tumores de mama localmente avançados após a quimioterapia neoadjuvante está relacionada à pior SLD e SG. Estes achados podem ser explicados pelo fato da expressão desta proteína identificar um grupo de tumores com alto índice de proliferação e maior agressividade. No nosso estudo, a expressão de p27 não foi preditiva de resposta ao tratamento neoadjuvante, SLD ou SG. / Introduction: the dysfunction in proteins that act controlling role in the cell cycle is directly related to oncogenesis initial processes. Cyclin A high expression in breast tumors is related to poor Disease Free Survival (DFS) and Global Survival (GS). Breast tumors lacking p27 expression are also related to worse prognosis. Both are associated with high grade tumors, larger diameters at diagnosis and higher c-erb-B2 expression. There are no available data comparing these proteins to clinical response in neoadjuvant therapy setting. Objectives: the purpose of our study is analyze thepositivity rates of cyclin A and p27 expression in locally advanced breast cancer (LABC), before and after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NCT) with Docetaxel (75 mg/m 2 ) and Epirrubicin (60 mg/m 2 ), their relation to treatment response, DFS and GS. Methods: ninety two patients were included between 1998 and 2004. They received at least two chemotherapy courses with 21 days intervals and were submitted to surgery, as local therapy, followed by radiotherapy if treated with breast conservative surgery. The expression ofcyclin A and p27 were evaluated through immunohistochemistry and only cases with expression higher than 30 and 50% (respectively) were considered positives. Results: the median chemotherapy cycle number was three (2 - 7) and the median follow-up time was 40 months (11 - 100). We observed cyclin A positivity before NCT in 27 patients (29,3%) and p27 in 42 (45,7%). After NCT, the positivity rates for cyclin A and p 27 were 16,3% (15 patients) and 29,3% (27 patients), respectively. The p27 expression wasnot predictive of clinical response, pathological response, DFS or GS. Cyclin A expression before chemo was also not predictive of clinical or pathological response. Expression of cyclin A after neoadjuvant therapy was associated to poorer clinical response (6,7 x 27,3%, p = 0,04) but not to pathological response. The maintenance of cyclin A expression after chemotherapy was also related to poor DFS (p = 0,006) and GS (p = 0,003). We were not able to findany relation between cyclin A and p27 expression and node status, histological grade, hormone receptors, c-erb-B2, tumor diameter and clinical staging. In multivariate analysis, age before 41 years, two or more positive lymph nodes and cyclin A expression were related to death by cancer. Conclusion: we concluded that p27 expression was not predictive of neoadjuvant response, DFS or GS. In contrary, the maintenance of cyclin A expression in LABC after neoadjuvant chemotherapy is predictive of worse prognosis, poor DFS and GS. This is probably due tothese tumors high proliferation and aggressiveness.

O mecanismo de oncogênese na laringe pode ser controlado por vários fatores, entre eles fatores envolvidos na regulação do ciclo celular e outros de risco, tais como exposição prolongada ao fumo e álcool. O desenvolvimento do câncer de laringe também pode estar associado à infecção pelo HPV. Este estudo, análise imunoistoquímica quantitativa de p53, p27 e Mdm2, foi realizado em 54 pacientes com carcinoma invasivo de laringe subdivididos em: carcinoma sem metástase (laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma without metastasis - LSCCWT), com metástase (laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma with metastasis - LSCCW) e linfonodos cervicais (limph nodes biopsies - LB). A detecção e tipificação do HPV foram realizadas pela reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) e os tipos de HPV avaliados foram HPV 6, 11, 16, 18, 31 e 33. Na análise quantitativa, alta expressão de p53, p27 e Mdm2 foi observada nos grupos LSCCW e LSCCWT assim como nas biópsias dos linfonodos cervicais, indicando que a avaliação dessas proteínas poderia não discriminar carcinomas de laringe metastáticos e não-metastáticos. Detecção do HPV foi verificada em apenas 7.4% dos casos. Dentre os pacientes HPV positivos, verificou-se expressão negativa de p53. Por outro lado, alta expressão de p27 e Mdm2 foi observada. Em conclusão, a avaliação quantitativa de p53, p27 e Mdm2 não permite traçar um perfil complementar em lesões metastáticas de laringe. / The mechanism of larynx oncogenesis could be controlled by various factors, most of them involved in cell cycle regulation and other risk factors such as smoking and alcohol abuse. The development of laryngeal carcinoma is associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. In this study, quantitative immunohistochemistry was perfomed for p53, p27 and Mdm2 in 54 patients with invasive laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma without metastasis (LSCCWT), with metastasis (LSCCW) and cervical lymph nodes (LB). HPV detection and typing was performed by PCR and the HPV types evaluated were HPV 6, 11, 16, 18, 31 and 33. In the quantitative analysis higher p53, p27 and Mdm2 expression was observed in both LSCCW and LSCCWT, as well in cervical lymph node biopsies with metastasis, may indicating that evaluation of these proteins may not discriminate between metastatic and non-metastatic laryngeal carcinoma. HPV was found in 7.4% of the cases. Among HPV- positive patients, p53 expression was negative. On the other hand, high p27 and Mdm2 expression was observed. In conclusion, these data suggest that quantitative evaluation of p53, p27 and Mdm2 does not permit to determine a complementary profile in metastatic laryngeal lesions.

La dérégulation du système de surveillance qui bloque la prolifération lorsque l'intégrité du génome est compromise fait partie intégrante de la cancérogenèse. Nous cherchons à décortiquer les mécanismes qui, en phase G2, orchestrent l'arrêt du cycle cellulaire, irréversible, en présence des lésions de l'ADN (sénescence) ou réversible (quiescence), en absence de signaux mitogéniques ou confluence. L'objectif du premier volet fut d'élucider les rôles respectifs de l'inhibiteur de CDK (CKI) p21Waf1 et des kinases Chk1 et Chk2 dans l'arrêt en G2 dû au stress génotoxique menant à la sénescence. Nous avons montré que dans les cellules humaines normales cet arrêt nécessite l'action de p21 et Chk1 tandis que Chk2 n'est pas requise. Au contraire, dans plusieurs lignées cancéreuses, malgré la présence de p53, ce rôle de p21 est compromis à cause d'une activation inefficace de la kinase ATM. Par conséquent, en dépit d'une forte activation de Chk1 bloquant la mitose, ces cellules ne parviennent pas à initier la sénescence (Lossaint et al., soumis). L'objectif du deuxième volet fut de mettre en évidence le programme déclenchant la quiescence lors de confluence ou en absence de sérum. Les travaux antérieurs de l'équipe ont montré que cette décision pouvait être prise avant la mitose même si l'arrêt du cycle n'a lieu qu'en phase G1 suivante. En étudiant les fibroblastes synchronisés nous avons trouvé que la quiescence est précédée par l'inhibition pré-mitotique de la phosphorylation de pRb due à une diminution de cycline D1 et une stabilisation du CKI p27Kip1 (Chassot et al., 2008). De plus, nos résultats récents montrent que la présence de sérum entre le point R et la mitose est requise pour initier la réplication de l'ADN au cycle suivant. Les travaux futurs devraient élucider comment différentes voies de signalisation, via la voie cycline D-pRb, affectent divers composants de l'appareil de réplication de l'ADN pour inhiber la progression du cycle de façon réversible ou irréversible. / Cancer is a multi-step process resulting from abrogation of several barriers to uncontrolled proliferation. They include inhibitory pathways with appropriate checkpoints that lead to reversible (quiescence) or irreversible (senescence, apoptosis) block of cell proliferation. We are especially interested in pathways orchestrating cell cycle exit that operate in the G2 phase. The first objective of this thesis was to decipher mechanisms that prevent mitosis in response to DNA damage. We found that Cdk inhibitor p21Waf1 plays a crucial role in blocking mitotic onset in normal cells; acting in tandem with checkpoint kinase Chk1, p21 inactivates mitotic Cdks and inhibits pRb phosphorylation, thereby irreversibly blocking mitotic entry. In contrast, in p53-proficient transformed cells, the induction of p21 in G2 is impaired, most likely because of deficient ATM activation. While, in some cases, Chk1 hyper-activation prevents mitosis, the absence of p21 compromises the senescence program from G2. Finally, we showed that Chk2 is dispensable for G2 arrest in both non-transformed and transformed cells (Lossaint et al., submitted). Our second objective was to elucidate the pathways that induce quiescence (G0). This reversible cell cycle exit occurs in G1, requires pRb family members and p27Kip1-dependent Cdk inactivation. Based on observations obtained in our team and the data in the literature, we hypothesized that reversible cell cycle exit program might be launched before mitosis. By using an in vitro wounding model, we showed that confluence-driven quiescence is preceded by pre-mitotic CDK inhibition by p27, cyclin D1 downregulation and reduced pre-mitotic pRb phosphorylation (Chassot et al., 2008). Moreover, our results obtained in synchronized fibroblasts that were serum-starved after release from G1/S block suggest that cyclin D1 might stimulate proliferation by keeping pocket proteins phosphorylated during G2/M progression (Lossaint et al., in preparation).

The tuberous sclerosis-2 (Tsc-2) gene product, tuberin, functions as a renal tumor suppressor. Treatment of Eker (Tsc-2 EK/+) rats and primary renal epithelial cells derived from Tsc-2 EK/+ rats (QTRRE cells) with 2,3,5-tris-(glutathion-S-yl) hydroquinone (TGHQ) results in loss of heterozygosity at the Tsc-2 locus in kidney tumors and QTRRE cells. QTRRE cells are carcinogenic in athymic nude mice. Analysis of kidney tumors formed in Tsc-2 EK/+ + rats following 8-months of TGHQ treatment reveals increases in B-Raf, Raf-1, pERK, cyclin D1, p27Kip1, 4EBP1, p-4EBP1(Thr70), p-4EBP1(Ser65), and p-4EBP1(Thr37/46) protein expression. These data establish the involvement of mTOR and MAPK signaling cascades in tuberin null tumors. Similar increases in 4EBP1 and p4EBP1 are observed in renal tumor QTRRE-xenografts in nude mice. Concomitant with increases in expression of these proteins in TGHQ-induced renal tumors, similar changes are observed in QTRRE cells, which also exhibit high ERK, B-Raf and Raf-1 kinase activity; and increased expression of cyclin D1, p27, p-4EBP1 (Thr70), p-4EBP1 (Ser65), and p-4EBP1 (Thr37/46). Manipulation of the Raf/MEK/ERK kinase cascade in QTRRE cells, with kinase inhibitors and siRNA, indicates that Raf-1/MEK/ERK participates in crosstalk with 4EBP1 to regulate translation of cyclin D1.Cyclin D1 and p27 protein levels are increased in the cytoplasm in our RCC models. In normal HK-2 cells, p27 and cyclin D1 are localized to the nucleus. Due to the instability of the cyclin D1-CDK4 complex, p27 interaction is necessary for cyclin D1-CDK4 complex assembly and stabilization in the nucleus. Manipulation of p27 protein levels in QTRRE cells with phosphodiesterase inhibitors, dibutyryl cAMP, and the proteosome inhibitor MG132, all result in a parallel increase in p27 and cyclin D1. Furthermore, p27 siRNA and sorafenib treatment both cause a decrease in p27 and cyclin D1. Further manipulation of cAMP, Rap1B, and B-Raf proteins, revealed that cAMP/PKA/Rap1B/B-Raf activation and B-Raf//ERK MAPK inhibition both modulate p27 expression and compartmental localization in tuberous sclerosis renal cancer. Phosphodiesterase inhibitors play a role in regulating the expression, degradation, and cytoplasmic localization of p27. Therefore, cytoplasmic p27-cyclin D1 mislocalization and stabilization may have an oncogenic role in the cytosol and play a crucial role in tumor formation.

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Deregulated cell proliferation, resulting from disruption of cell cycle control, is characteristic of many cancers. In normal cells, cell cycle progression is mediated by a family of cyclin dependent kinases (Cdks) that are positively regulated by associated cyclins. The activities of these cyclin-Cdk complexes are regulated by two protein families: the inhibitors of Cdk4 (INK4) and the kinase inhibitor proteins (KIP). p27 is a KIP family member that can inhibit cyclin E-Cdk2 activity. It also plays a role in the assembly and nuclear import of cyclin D-Cdk4 in early G1. p27 has been shown to be deregulated in human cancers by accelerated proteolysis, sequestration in cyclin D-Cdk complexes, and mislocalization to the cytoplasm. The causes of these alterations are not fully understood, but result, at least in part, from changes in signal transduction pathways that alter p27 phosphorylation and function. Activation of both the Ras/Raf/ mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and the phospho-inositol 3' kinase (PI3K) pathways have been shown to alter p27 function and to activate p27 degradation in different cell types. In this thesis, I have investigated the roles played by two kinases downstream of PI3K, protein kinase B (PKB) and p90 ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK1), in regulation of p27 function. I observed that PKB-mediated phosphorylation of p27 promotes p27-cyclin D1-Cdk4 assembly. p27 phosphorylation by RSK1 alters the interaction of p27 with cytoskeleton proteins to promote cell motility. I observed that PKB activation and the appearance of p27pT157 and p27pT198 in early G1 precede p27-cyclin D1-Cdk4 assembly. PI3K/PKB inhibition dissociates cellular p27-cyclin D1-Cdk4 and p27T157A, p27T198A and p27T157A/T198A bind cellular cyclin D1 and Cdk4 poorly. Cellular p27pT157 and p27pT198 co-precipitate with Cdk4 but not Cdk2. p27 phosphorylation by PKB increases the ability of p27 to assemble cyclin D1-Cdk4 in vitro, but yields inactive Cdk4. While Src does not affect p27's ability to assemble cyclin D1-Cdk4, Src treatment yields catalytically active p27-cyclin D1-Cdk4. Thus, while PKB dependent p27 phosphorylation promotes p27-cyclin D1-Cdk4 assembly, tyrosine phosphorylation of p27 is required for activation of p27-cyclin D1-Cdk4 complexes. Constitutive activation of PKB and Abl or Src family kinases in cancers would drive p27 phosphorylation, increase cyclin D1-Cdk4 assembly and activation, and reduce the cyclin E-Cdk2 inhibitory function of p27. Combined therapy with both Src and PI3K/PKB inhibitors may reverse this process. While RSK1 has been shown to phosphorylate p27, the key phosphorylation sites and the consequence of this phosphorylation event were not fully elucidated. I have shown that RSK1 activation in early G1 precedes p27 phosphorylation at T157 and T198 in synchronized cell populations. Overexpression of RSK1 causes resistance to G1 arrest by TGF-â. Moreover, cells overexpressing RSK1 show an increase in p27 phosphorylation at T198, increased p27 stability, and an increase in p27 binding to Cdk4. In addition, RSK1-transfectants have increased cytoplasmic p27, associated with increased cell motility and inhibition of RhoA. p27 phosphorylation by recombinant RSK1 increases p27 binding to RhoA, while p27T157A/T198A shows reduced association with RhoA in cells. Thus, phosphorylation of p27 at T198 by RSK1 promotes its binding to RhoA and loss of actin stress fiber stability. Oncogenic RSK1 activation may promote increased cancer cell migration and cancer metastasis. Taken together our results indicate that oncogenic activation of the PI3K pathway can contribute to loss of cyclin E-Cdk2 inhibitory action of p27 by at least two mechanisms. Activation of PKB and RSK1 signaling would promote cytoplasmic mislocalization of p27, p27-RhoA binding and inhibition of the RhoA pathway to augment cell motility. In addition, these phosphorylation events on p27 would increase the assembly of p27-cyclin D1-Cdk4 as a first step in a chain of events that would promote that nuclear import and activation of D-type cyclin Cdk complexes, shifting the equilibrium away from the Cdk2 inhibitory action of p27.

Chronic oxidative injury by allylamine induces proliferative vascular smooth muscle cell (vSMC) phenotypes in the rat aorta similar to those seen in rodent and human atherosclerotic lesions. In this study, we evaluate the potential role of cyclin dependent kinase inhibitors, p21 and p27, and extracellular regulated kinases (ERK1/2) to mediate the proliferative advantage of oxidatively stressed (i.e. allylamine injured) vSMC. Isolated rat aortic SMC from allylamine treated and control rats were cultured on different extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. Following mitogen restriction, cultures were stimulated with serum with or without inhibitors of NF-kB or MEK. Western blot analysis was performed to identify protein differences between treatment groups. Basal levels of p21 were 1.6 fold higher in randomly cycling allylamine cells than control counterparts seeded on a plastic substrate, a difference lost when cells were seeded on collagen. p27 levels were comparable in both cell types irrespective of substrate. Basal levels of p21 and p27 were 1.4 fold higher in G0 synchronized allylamine cells compared with G0 synchronized control cells seeded on a plastic substrate. Following cell cycle progression, differences in protein levels were not detected. Treatment with 100 nM pyrollidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) resulted in significant decreases in p21 and p27 in allylamine cells versus control cells following serum stimulation for 9 hours. This decrease was even greater for p21 in allylamine cells when grown on collagen relative to control cells. Alterations in peak and temporal activation of ERK1/2 were observed in allylamine cells seeded on a plastic substrate as compared to control cells, following serum stimulation. Seeding on collagen decreased the enhanced peak phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and increased the sustained activity in allylamine cells compared with control counterparts. Inhibition of ERK1/2 activity resulted in reduced p21 expression in both cells types, but the response was markedly enhanced in allylamine cells, and preferentially observed on a restrictive collagen substrate. We conclude that induction of proliferative (i.e. atherogenic) phenotypes following repeated cycles of oxidative injury involves ERK1/2 activity and modulation of the cyclin dependent kinase inhibitors, p21 and p27, in a matrix-dependent manner.