The Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor and member of the basic helix-loop-helix Per/ARNT/Sim (bHLH/PAS) family of chemosensors and developmental regulators. As a member of the PAS domain family of transcription factors responsive to exogenous signals, the AhR exerts influence on many processes relating to cellular fate. The activation of AhR is widely associated with toxic endpoints related to dioxin exposure. However, the AhR also activates endogenous gene programs related to development, cellular growth, and differentiation. The AhR is able to bind a variety of ligands, leading to a wide range of biological outcomes. Recent reports have shown that the AhR can mediate tumor suppressive effects. As a ligand-activated transcription factor, the AhR has the potential to actuate a variety of transcriptional programs that are dependent on the AhR ligand. Our central hypothesis is that AhR ligands can be identified that are capable of initiating tumor suppressive functions of the AhR. We utilized complementary cell-based and in silico virtual screening approaches to identify potential AhR ligands. We developed homology models of the AhR ligand-binding domain (LBD) for virtual ligand screening (VLS) of small molecule libraries. This led to the identification of new AhR ligands 5,7- dihydroxyflavanone!and 5-hydroxy-7-methoxyflavone. Additional small molecule libraries were screened in parallel that led to identification of flutamide as a putative AhR ligand. Flutamide is clinically approved for the treatment of prostate cancer due to its ability to antagonize androgen receptor mediated transcription. We investigated the biological effects of flutamide in AhR positive cancer cells that do not express the androgen receptor and found that flutamide inhibited the growth of HepG2 cells. Suppression of AhR expression reversed the anti-proliferative effects of flutamide. We tested 15 structural analogs of flutamide, including the flutamide metabolite 2-hydroxyflutamide for activation of AhR transcriptional activity. Flutamide is unique in its ability to activate the AhR, and suppresses hepatoma cell growth. These data suggests that flutamide-induced AhR transcriptional activity is required to initiate the tumor suppressive effects. We examined changes in cell cycle checkpoint proteins after flutamide treatment and discovered increased expression of cell cycle inhibitory proteins p27[superscript Kip1] and p15[superscript INK]. We also found that transforming Growth Factor β1 (TGFβ1), which regulates both p27[superscript Kip1] and p15[superscript INK], is upregulated by flutamide. We demonstrate that TGFβ1 is upregulated by flutamide in an AhR-dependent manner and is required for suppression of proliferation by flutamide. We identify specific and unique transcriptional signatures of the AhR upon activation by flutamide, that are distinct from the potent AhR agonist 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). In summary, we characterize flutamide as an AhR ligand and demonstrate its AhR-dependent tumor suppressive effects in hepatoma cells. We provide the first direct evidence that AhR regulates TGFβ signaling in a ligand dependent manner. We demonstrate that the AhR-induced downstream transcriptional signature and subsequent biological effects are specific to the AhR ligand. Our studies have broad impact for characterizing the AhR as a new therapeutic target in hepatocellular carcinoma. / Graduation date: 2013 / Access restricted to the OSU Community at author's request from March 28, 2013 - March 28, 2015

Janus kinase 3 (JAK3) est un membre de la famille JAK de protéines tyrosine kinase impliquées dans la transduction du signal intracellulaire médiée par les récepteurs de cytokines via la voie de signalisation JAK/STAT. JAK3 s'est avéré exprimé de manière différentielle dans les cellules de la granulosa (GC) des follicules pré-ovulatoires bovins et régulé à la baisse par l'hormone lutéinisante. Ces observations suggèrent que la régulation de JAK3 pourrait moduler la prolifération des GC, l'activité stéroïdienne et l'activation/l'inhibition des cibles en aval. Pour étudier les mécanismes des actions de JAK3 dans GC, nous avons utilisé JANEX-1, un inhibiteur pharmacologique de JAK3, et des traitements FSH et analysé des marqueurs de prolifération, des enzymes stéroïdogènes et la phosphorylation de protéines cibles, y compris STAT3 et les partenaires JAK3 précédemment identifiés CDKN1B/p27Kip1 et MAPK8IP3/JIP3. Les GC en culture ont été traités avec ou sans FSH en présence ou non de JANEX-1. L'ARN total et les protéines ont été extraits et analysés par RT-qPCR, western blot et UHPLC-MS/MS. L'expression de l'enzyme stéroïdogène CYP11A1, mais pas du CYP19A1, était significativement régulée à la hausse dans les GC traités avec la FSH et les deux étaient significativement diminuées lorsque JAK3 était inhibé par rapport au contrôle. Les marqueurs de prolifération CCND2 et PCNA ont été significativement réduits dans les GC traités au JANEX-1 et régulés positivement par la FSH. Les analyses Western blots ont montré que le traitement JANEX-1 réduisait de manière significative les quantités de pSTAT3 tandis que la surexpression de JAK3 augmentait pSTAT3. De même, le traitement à la FSH a augmenté pSTAT3 même dans les GC traités au JANEX-1. Les analyses UHPLC-MS/MS ont montré une phosphorylation et des modifications supplémentaires de résidus d'acides aminés spécifiques dans JAK3 ainsi que ses partenaires de liaison CDKN1B et MAPK8IP3 révélant une activation ou une inhibition possible de JAK3 après des traitements FSH ou JANEX-1, respectivement. L'abondance de la protéine totale JAK3 a augmenté après le traitement par FSH et a diminué de manière significative, avec MAPK8IP3, dans le GC traité par JANEX-1, tandis que l'abondance totale de CDKN1B a été modifiée après FSH et augmentée après JANEX-1. Nous montrons que JAK3 influence l'activité GC par la phosphorylation de protéines cibles en réponse à des stimulations telles que la FSH, ce qui conduit à l'activation de JAK/STAT et module probablement d'autres voies de signalisation impliquant CDKN1B et MAPK8IP3. / Janus kinase 3 (JAK3) is a member of the JAK family of tyrosine kinase proteins involved in cytokine receptor-mediated intracellular signal transduction through the JAK/STAT signaling pathway. JAK3 was shown as differentially expressed in granulosa cells (GC) of bovine preovulatory follicles and downregulated by the luteinizing hormone. These observations suggested JAK3 regulation could modulate GC proliferation, steroidogenic activity and activation/inhibition of downstream targets. To investigate the mechanisms of JAK3 actions in GC, we used JANEX-1, a pharmacological JAK3 inhibitor, and FSH treatments and analyzed proliferation markers, steroidogenic enzymes and phosphorylation of target proteins including STAT3 and previously identified JAK3 partners CDKN1B/p27Kip1 and MAPK8IP3/JIP3. Cultured GCs were treated with or without FSH in the presence or not of JANEX-1. Total RNA and proteins were extracted and analyzed by RT-qPCR, western blotting and UHPLC-MS/MS. Expression of steroidogenic enzyme CYP11A1, but not CYP19A1, was significantly upregulated in GC treated with FSH and both were significantly decreased when JAK3 was inhibited as compared to control. Proliferation markers CCND2 and PCNA were significantly reduced in JANEX-1-treated GC and upregulated by FSH. Western blots analyses showed that JANEX-1 treatment significantly reduced pSTAT3 amounts while JAK3 overexpression increased pSTAT3. Similarly, FSH treatment increased pSTAT3 even in JANEX-1-treated GC. UHPLC-MS/MS analyses showed phosphorylation and additional modifications of specific amino acid residues within JAK3 as well as its binding partners CDKN1B and MAPK8IP3 revealing possible activation or inhibition of JAK3 following FSH or JANEX-1 treatments, respectively. Abundance of JAK3 total protein was increased post-FSH treatment and significantly decreased, along with MAPK8IP3, in JANEX-1-treated GC while CDKN1B total abundance was altered post-FSH and increased post-JANEX-1. We show that JAK3 influences GC activity through phosphorylation of target proteins in response to stimulations such as FSH, which leads to the activation of JAK/STAT and likely modulating other signaling pathways involving CDKN1B and MAPK8IP3.

INTRODUÇÃO: Na Neoplasia Endócrina Múltipla tipo 2 (NEM2), o desenvolvimento do Carcinoma Medular de Tireoide (CMT), Feocromocitoma (FEO) e Hiperparatireoidismo primário (HPT) está associado à mutações germinativas ativadoras no proto-oncogene RET. Casos de CMT esporádico podem apresentar mutações somáticas no RET (~40%). A variabilidade fenotípica observada em casos de CMT e FEO familiais associados à NEM2 indica o envolvimento de eventos genéticos adicionais que seriam responsáveis pelas diferenças clínicas observadas nos indivíduos afetados (idade de desenvolvimento, progressão e agressividade do tumor). Outras alterações genéticas no RET como duplas mutações, SNPs e haplótipos específicos podem influenciar na susceptibilidade, agressividade e modulação do fenótipo NEM2. Entretanto, os estudos de outros genes envolvidos no processo da tumorigênese NEM2 ainda estão em andamento. Recentemente foi mostrado que RET ativado controla a expressão de proteínas inibidoras do ciclo celular (p18 e p27). Mutações germinativas no gene p27 foram recentemente associadas à susceptibilidade de tumores neuroendócrinos e estão associadas à síndrome NEM4 (Neoplasia endócrina múltipla tipo 4). Mutações somáticas, inativadoras de p27, são raramente encontradas em vários tipos de tumores. Entretanto, diversos estudos documentaram que a redução na expressão e a sublocalização citoplamática de p27 são controladas por alterações pós-transducionais e/ou epigenéticas. OBJETIVOS: o estudo teve como objetivos avaliar a participação de genes, recentemente associados ao RET ativado, em tumores de pacientes com NEM2 e também verificar se polimorfismos no gene p27 estariam atuando como moduladores de fenótipo em uma grande família com NEM2. CASUÍTICA: foram analisadas 66 amostras tumorais advindas de 36 pacientes com diagnóstico clínico e genético de NEM2 e 28 indivíduos pertencentes a uma grande família com NEM2A-CMTF e mutação C620R no gene RET. MÉTODOS: As análises somáticas do p27 e também de p15, p18 e RET foram realizadas por PCR e sequenciamento direto de DNA e análise de microssatélites para p27 foi realizada por PCR e eletroforese capilar. Análises de expressão e localização da proteína p27 celular foram realizadas por Western blot e imunohistoquímica. A análise da modulação de fenótipo na família com NEM2A foi realizada por meio da amplificação do éxon 1 do gene p27 na amostra de sangue total. RESULTADOS: Não foram encontradas mutações somáticas no gene p27 e também nos genes p15 e p18. Entretanto, verificamos baixa expressão proteica de p27 em tumores CMT e FEO, a qual se encontrava relacionada com o tipo e agressividade do códon mutado no RET, principalmente em tumores que apresentavam mutação RET no códon 634 (controle x 634 p=0,05; controle x 634/791 p= 0,032; 620 x 634 p=0,045; 620 x 634/791 p= 0,002; 620 x 634 + 634/791 p=0,036). Notou-se também correlação positiva entre os níveis de expressão de p27 na localização nuclear, analisada por imunohistoquímica, e o genótipo TT do SNP p27 p.V109G (p=0,03). CONCLUSÕES: Alterações moleculares somáticas no gene p27 nos tumores NEM2 não são frequentes. Entretanto, a redução na expressão e a localização citoplasmática de p27 provavelmente estão associadas a alterações somáticas em outros genes que controlam os processos de fosforilação da proteína p27 (eventos pós-transducionais) / INTRODUCTION: In Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia type 2 (MEN2) the development of medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC), pheochromocytoma (PHEO) and primary hyperparathyroidism (HPT) are associated with activating germline mutations in RET proto-oncogene. Cases of sporadic MTC may have somatic RET mutations (~ 40%). The phenotypic variability observed in cases with familial MTC/MEN2 and PHEO/MEN2 indicates the probable involvement of additional genetic events that could be responsible for the clinical differences observed in the affected individuals (age development, progression and aggressiveness of the tumor). Other genetic alterations such as RET double mutations, SNPs and specific haplotypes may influence susceptibility, aggressiveness and MEN2 phenotype modulation. However, studies of other genes involved in the tumorigenesis of MEN2 are still in progress. Recently, it was shown that the activated RET controls the expression of cell cycle inhibitory proteins (p18 and p27). Germline mutations in the p27 gene have recently been associated with the susceptibility to neuroendocrine tumors and are associated with the MEN4 syndrome (Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 4). Somatic inactivating mutations p27 are rarely found in many types of tumors. However, several studies have documented that reduced expression and subcellular location of p27 is controlled by post-transductional changes and/or epigenetic factors. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to evaluate the role of genes recently associated with RET activated in tumors from MEN2 patients and also check whether polymorphisms in the p27 gene would be acting as modulators of phenotype in a large MEN2 family. PATIENTS: We analyzed 66 tumor samples from 36 patients with clinical and genetic diagnosis of MEN2 and from 28 individuals belonging to a large family with FMTC/MEN2A and RET C620R mutation. METHODS: The analyses of somatic p27, p15, p18 and RET were performed by PCR and direct sequencing of DNA and microsatellite analysis was performed for p27 by PCR and capillary electrophoresis. Expression analysis and subcellular localization of p27 protein were performed by Western blot and immunohistochemistry. The analysis of phenotype modulation in MEN2A families was performed by the amplification of exon 1 of the p27 gene in a whole blood sample. RESULTS: There were no somatic mutations in the p27 gene and also in the p15 and p18 genes. However, we verified a low p27 protein expression in MTC/MEN2 and PHEO/MEN2 that showed a definite correlation with the type and aggressiveness of the mutated RET codon, mainly in those tumors from cases with germline RET codon 634 mutations (control vs 634, p=0,05; control vs 634/791, p= 0,032; 620 vs 634, p=0,045; 620 vs 634/791, p= 0,002; 620 vs 634 + 634/791, p=0,036). It was also verified a positive correlation between the immunohistochemistry expression of nuclear p27 subcellular location and the p27 p.V109G TT genotype (p=0,03). CONCLUSIONS: The reduction in the expression of p27 and its subcellular localization are likely to be associated with somatic changes in other genes that control the processes of phosphorylation of p27 protein through post-transductional events

INTRODUÇÃO: Na Neoplasia Endócrina Múltipla tipo 2 (NEM2), o desenvolvimento do Carcinoma Medular de Tireoide (CMT), Feocromocitoma (FEO) e Hiperparatireoidismo primário (HPT) está associado à mutações germinativas ativadoras no proto-oncogene RET. Casos de CMT esporádico podem apresentar mutações somáticas no RET (~40%). A variabilidade fenotípica observada em casos de CMT e FEO familiais associados à NEM2 indica o envolvimento de eventos genéticos adicionais que seriam responsáveis pelas diferenças clínicas observadas nos indivíduos afetados (idade de desenvolvimento, progressão e agressividade do tumor). Outras alterações genéticas no RET como duplas mutações, SNPs e haplótipos específicos podem influenciar na susceptibilidade, agressividade e modulação do fenótipo NEM2. Entretanto, os estudos de outros genes envolvidos no processo da tumorigênese NEM2 ainda estão em andamento. Recentemente foi mostrado que RET ativado controla a expressão de proteínas inibidoras do ciclo celular (p18 e p27). Mutações germinativas no gene p27 foram recentemente associadas à susceptibilidade de tumores neuroendócrinos e estão associadas à síndrome NEM4 (Neoplasia endócrina múltipla tipo 4). Mutações somáticas, inativadoras de p27, são raramente encontradas em vários tipos de tumores. Entretanto, diversos estudos documentaram que a redução na expressão e a sublocalização citoplamática de p27 são controladas por alterações pós-transducionais e/ou epigenéticas. OBJETIVOS: o estudo teve como objetivos avaliar a participação de genes, recentemente associados ao RET ativado, em tumores de pacientes com NEM2 e também verificar se polimorfismos no gene p27 estariam atuando como moduladores de fenótipo em uma grande família com NEM2. CASUÍTICA: foram analisadas 66 amostras tumorais advindas de 36 pacientes com diagnóstico clínico e genético de NEM2 e 28 indivíduos pertencentes a uma grande família com NEM2A-CMTF e mutação C620R no gene RET. MÉTODOS: As análises somáticas do p27 e também de p15, p18 e RET foram realizadas por PCR e sequenciamento direto de DNA e análise de microssatélites para p27 foi realizada por PCR e eletroforese capilar. Análises de expressão e localização da proteína p27 celular foram realizadas por Western blot e imunohistoquímica. A análise da modulação de fenótipo na família com NEM2A foi realizada por meio da amplificação do éxon 1 do gene p27 na amostra de sangue total. RESULTADOS: Não foram encontradas mutações somáticas no gene p27 e também nos genes p15 e p18. Entretanto, verificamos baixa expressão proteica de p27 em tumores CMT e FEO, a qual se encontrava relacionada com o tipo e agressividade do códon mutado no RET, principalmente em tumores que apresentavam mutação RET no códon 634 (controle x 634 p=0,05; controle x 634/791 p= 0,032; 620 x 634 p=0,045; 620 x 634/791 p= 0,002; 620 x 634 + 634/791 p=0,036). Notou-se também correlação positiva entre os níveis de expressão de p27 na localização nuclear, analisada por imunohistoquímica, e o genótipo TT do SNP p27 p.V109G (p=0,03). CONCLUSÕES: Alterações moleculares somáticas no gene p27 nos tumores NEM2 não são frequentes. Entretanto, a redução na expressão e a localização citoplasmática de p27 provavelmente estão associadas a alterações somáticas em outros genes que controlam os processos de fosforilação da proteína p27 (eventos pós-transducionais) / INTRODUCTION: In Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia type 2 (MEN2) the development of medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC), pheochromocytoma (PHEO) and primary hyperparathyroidism (HPT) are associated with activating germline mutations in RET proto-oncogene. Cases of sporadic MTC may have somatic RET mutations (~ 40%). The phenotypic variability observed in cases with familial MTC/MEN2 and PHEO/MEN2 indicates the probable involvement of additional genetic events that could be responsible for the clinical differences observed in the affected individuals (age development, progression and aggressiveness of the tumor). Other genetic alterations such as RET double mutations, SNPs and specific haplotypes may influence susceptibility, aggressiveness and MEN2 phenotype modulation. However, studies of other genes involved in the tumorigenesis of MEN2 are still in progress. Recently, it was shown that the activated RET controls the expression of cell cycle inhibitory proteins (p18 and p27). Germline mutations in the p27 gene have recently been associated with the susceptibility to neuroendocrine tumors and are associated with the MEN4 syndrome (Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 4). Somatic inactivating mutations p27 are rarely found in many types of tumors. However, several studies have documented that reduced expression and subcellular location of p27 is controlled by post-transductional changes and/or epigenetic factors. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to evaluate the role of genes recently associated with RET activated in tumors from MEN2 patients and also check whether polymorphisms in the p27 gene would be acting as modulators of phenotype in a large MEN2 family. PATIENTS: We analyzed 66 tumor samples from 36 patients with clinical and genetic diagnosis of MEN2 and from 28 individuals belonging to a large family with FMTC/MEN2A and RET C620R mutation. METHODS: The analyses of somatic p27, p15, p18 and RET were performed by PCR and direct sequencing of DNA and microsatellite analysis was performed for p27 by PCR and capillary electrophoresis. Expression analysis and subcellular localization of p27 protein were performed by Western blot and immunohistochemistry. The analysis of phenotype modulation in MEN2A families was performed by the amplification of exon 1 of the p27 gene in a whole blood sample. RESULTS: There were no somatic mutations in the p27 gene and also in the p15 and p18 genes. However, we verified a low p27 protein expression in MTC/MEN2 and PHEO/MEN2 that showed a definite correlation with the type and aggressiveness of the mutated RET codon, mainly in those tumors from cases with germline RET codon 634 mutations (control vs 634, p=0,05; control vs 634/791, p= 0,032; 620 vs 634, p=0,045; 620 vs 634/791, p= 0,002; 620 vs 634 + 634/791, p=0,036). It was also verified a positive correlation between the immunohistochemistry expression of nuclear p27 subcellular location and the p27 p.V109G TT genotype (p=0,03). CONCLUSIONS: The reduction in the expression of p27 and its subcellular localization are likely to be associated with somatic changes in other genes that control the processes of phosphorylation of p27 protein through post-transductional events