This work begins by describing a general theory of value which embraces many of the commonly used valuation techniques that have been developed by economists (the time tradeoff, the standard gamble and willingness to pay). These techniques share the common characteristic that each expresses value in terms of a sacrifice that people are prepared to make in order to achieve the benefit being valued. Here, those benefits comprise improvements in health. In the time tradeoff, the sacrifice used to express the value people would attach to an improvement in health, is the amount of time they would give up to obtain it. Hitherto this technique has usually asked people to accept a premature death as the payment for better health. In the standard gamble, the most commonly used sacrifice that people are asked to make is a risk of death in exchange for better health. With 'willingness to pay', people are asked to value health in terms of the amount of money they would exchange for better health. Empirical evidence is produced from three major studies, involving 4739 respondents. These studies confirm that two health valuation techniques (the standard gamble and the time tradeoff) do indeed appear to be more closely related to each other than to other valuation methods, not based within the economic theory. Further work establishes the validity of an adaptation of the time tradeoff technique to overcome some of the principal disadvantages of the method as it has usually been applied hitherto. This adaptation asks people to value health by giving up time during much shorter and more immediate time intervals.

“Too often we underestimate the power of a touch, a smile, a kind word, a listening ear, an honest compliment, or the smallest act of caring, all of which have the potential to turn life around,” (Leo F Buscaglia 1924-1998). Caring is a universal phenomenon (Leininger, 1988a, 1991) that influences the way we think, feel and act and is the focus of debate worldwide. Studied since the days of Florence Nightingale and reflected in the literature are numerous theoretical opinions in the search for a comprehensive understanding of caring in the health experience of human beings (Newman et al., 1991). This ethnographic thesis has a caring science perspective (caring in orthopaedics) with the aim of acquiring a greater understanding of perceptions of caring in an orthopaedic clinical setting from both patient and health care professional perspectives. There is a wealth of literature relating to caring which attempts to define and interpret its meaning from several theoretical perspectives. In respect of institutional or professional caring, nursing has historically been synonymous with the notion of care and caring, modest research has been attributed to caring amongst other health care professionals in the wider context. The study used a sequential exploratory mixed methods design and was underpinned by Watson’s Theory of Transpersonal Care in order to discover and illuminate the essential caring behaviours valued by both care givers and care recipients. A total of 30 patients and 53 health care professionals consisting of doctors, nurses, physiotherapists and occupational therapists participated in the study through a three stage approach consisting of questionnaires, observation and semi-structured interviews. The findings revealed both similarities and differences between patients and health care professionals relating to the importance of positive caring behaviours revealed during caring interactions. The questionnaires disclosed that patients statistically rated caring behaviours demonstrated by health care professionals lower than the professionals rated themselves. The data analysis from the participant observation and semi-structured interviews established that although all of the caring caratives according to Watson’s Theory of Care were evident in caring interactions they varied as to the number of times they were exhibited by the respected health care professional groups. Overall patient perception of caring focused upon behaviours related to the caring carative ‘assurance of human presence’ whilst health care professionals considered caring behaviours relating to the caring carative ‘respectful deference’ as the most important. This thesis highlights the need of the patient to feel ‘cared for’ and ‘cared about’ and in today’s modern health care system caring should not be monopolised by one profession but instead the caring concept embraced and the caring dais shared by other professions.

Down’s syndrome is a common chromosomal disorder associated with intellectual disability, congenital anomalies and increased risk of a number of acquired diseases. Despite improvements in life expectancy due to improved medical care, clear health disparities still exist. Down’s syndrome remains an important cause of infant mortality and intellectual disability in Hong Kong and globally. Gaps in existing knowledge include an unknown prevalence of Down’s syndrome, especially amongst adults; unknown patterns of A&E and outpatient utilisation by people with Down’s syndrome; the applicability of international data on hospitalisations of people with Down’s syndrome to Hong Kong; and the current demand on Hong Kong’s public healthcare services by people with Down’s syndrome. This study uses Hospital Authority patient and healthcare episode data to identify people with Down’s syndrome alive in 2010. Data from the Hong Kong Census 2011 is then used to create an estimate of the age- specific point prevalence of Down’s syndrome in Hong Kong on 31/12/2010. The relative risk associated with Down’s syndrome of at least one admission is calculated. Age and gender stratified rates of A&E attendance, outpatient attendance and inpatient admissions for both the Down’s syndrome population and the general population are estimated and compared. Average length of stay is also calculated for both populations and compared. A negative binomial with log link regression model is used to examine the association between patient characteristics, including age, gender, ethnicity and known comorbidities, and admission factors, including admission type, admitting speciality, surgery and intensive care admission, on length of stay. Lastly, the proportion of Hospital Authority A&E attendances, outpatient attendances and inpatient admissions that are by people with Down’s syndrome is calculated. 2,144 people with Down’s syndrome were identified. The overall prevalence of Down’s syndrome on 31/12/2010 in Hong Kong was 3.00 per 10,000. It was highest in those aged under 5 years at 9.95 per 10,000 and decreased with age. Rates of A&E, outpatient attendance and inpatient admission were 2.0, 2.4 and 3.3 times higher respectively in the Down’s syndrome population compared to the general population. The Risk Ratio of at least one admission associated with Down’s syndrome was 2.59 (p<0.001). Factors significantly associated with increased length of stay included infant age group, known thyroid disease, known other circulatory malformation, non-emergency admission, surgery, admission to ICU and 3 or more known comorbidities. Known congenital heart disease and known epilepsy were significantly associated with a shorter length of stay. The overall proportion of A&E attendances, outpatient attendances and inpatient admissions that were by people with Down’s syndrome were 0.06%, 0.07% and 0.10% respectively. This study provides new knowledge on Down’s syndrome in Hong Kong which will be of use to those delivering and planning healthcare services for this population, and also to those providing genetic counselling on Down’s syndrome. At the same time, new questions are raised on morbidity, mortality and equity of healthcare access amongst people with Down’s syndrome. Further research is required to answer these questions and thus allow effective interventions for reducing morbidity and mortality in this population to be designed. / published_or_final_version / Public Health / Master / Master of Public Health

Physical activity (PA) is related to prevention and rehabilitation (rehab) of oncology patients, however little is known about PA habits of patients with cancer. Purpose. The purpose of this study was to assess and characterize PA habits, fatigue, and mood states of cancer survivors from before participation in an exercise rehab program to the final week of a 16 session exercise rehab program. Methods. Eleven subjects (9 women, 2 men, with an average age 60.9±1 0.1 years) wore an Actigraph GT1M accelerometer and New Lifestyle series pedometer a week before beginning an exercise rehab program (baseline), the first week (week 1) and the final week of exercise rehab (week 8). Intensity counts/minute and steps were measured by the GT1M and steps were calculated by the pedometer. Results. Ten subjects were classified under the sedentary step index, walking <5,500 steps/day and further grouped under the subcategory for chronic diseased individuals proposed by Tudor-Locke and Myers of 3,500-5,500 steps/day. One subject was recorded by the accelerometer to meet the Surgeon General, American College of Sports Medicine/Center for Disease Control and Prevention, the American Cancer Society, and 10,000 step/day PA guidelines throughout the study. The accelerometer underestimated rehab activity of 4 subjects who exercised on the Nu-step during rehab. PA habits of steps and intensity varied at baseline, week 1, and week 8 and on rehab and non-rehab days. There were no patterns seen determined by diagnosis, treatment, or staging of cancer. Five subjects increased their 6 minute walk distance, 6 subjects decreased in total mood disturbance, and 4 subjects lowered their perception of fatigue. Conclusion. The intervention, exercise, with 11 cancer survivors maintained PA habits, functional ability, fatigue, and mood states over time and on rehab and non-rehab days. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of New South Wales, 1999. / Also available online.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Michigan, 1988.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Michigan, 1988.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) is becoming an increasingly prevalent health problem, affecting 4% of men and 2% of women in North America. OSA is associated with many debilitating side-effects and co-morbidities; the most common being excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), which effects the majority of OSA sufferers. EDS is negatively associated with physical activity (PA) and exercise. As a result, EDS may decrease the levels of PA performed by OSA patients. Previous research has revealed that the OSA population engages in less physical activity than the average healthy population. Studies show that CPAP treatment positively impacts EDS, and therefore; may impact PA. The primary purpose of this study was to objectively measure OSA patients' PA levels prior to CPAP treatment and 8 weeks after treatment initiation to assess whether CPAP treatment' impacts PA levels.Actigraph GT 1 M measures PA was assessed at baseline (prior to CPAP) and 8-weeks after. initiation of CPAP treatment. At each time frame, cardiovascular., blood data, body composition, and maximal cycle ergometer exercise measures were obtained. Also, subjective questionnaires, 1 reflective of sleep apnea and 1 regarding PA, were completed by the subjects.Six male subjects with severe OSA (AHI = 41.2 ± 28.4 events/hr) started and completed the study. No significant changes occurred in PA, represented as steps/day nor mean activity counts/day, throughout the 8 weeks of CPAP treatment. Significant changes were found in diastolic blood pressure, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and Epworth sleepiness scale scores. No significant changes occurred in any other body composition, heart rate, systolic blood pressure, triglycerides, and blood glucose. Exercise parameters, total test time, peak Watts, and V02max trended toward an increase and maximal heart rate and blood pressure toward a decrease, but none changed significantly.In conclusion, these results demonstrated that 8 weeks of CPAP treatment was not successful in increasing PA levels of severe OSA patients. The OSA subjects were categorized as sedentary according to their steps/day. Compliance to CPAP could have been an issue with subjects' average nightly usage ranging from 1.85 – 6.6hours/night. Consequently, more research regarding OSA patients PA habits and CPAP treatments effects on PA should be investigated. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

Adults over the age of 65 are at increased risk for influenza and pneumococcal infections; particularly those residing in nursing homes (NHs). Despite the efficacy of influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations, vaccination receipt rates among NH residents remain well below federal recommendations and racial/ethnic disparities exist. Minority NH residents (non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanics) are less likely to be offered either vaccination and are more likely to refuse them compared to their non-minority counterparts (non-Hispanic Whites). In the past decade, requirements have been implemented to increase vaccination coverage in NHs, but there is little documentation regarding current racial/ethnic disparities in vaccination receipt. Furthermore, activities important to resident care delivery and the prevention of care deficiencies such as infections are primarily dependent on the care provided by certified nursing assistants (CNAs). For these reasons, current research examining racial/ethnic disparities in vaccination receipt in NHs is needed and more attention directed towards CNAs is necessary to improve resident care delivery and outcomes related to infection prevention and control. This dissertation furthers our understanding of racial/ethnic disparities in influenza and pneumococcal vaccination coverage among minority NH residents and the role racial/ethnic diverse CNAs play in infection prevention and control. Chapter One introduces the problem of health disparities in nursing homes (NHs) related to differences in preventative vaccination receipt by racial/ethnic status and the role CNAs play in infection prevention and control. Chapter Two, an integrative literature review on racial/ethnic disparities in NHs, describes racial/ethnic disparities occurring in the NH setting in the context of infection prevention and control and influenza and pneumococcal vaccination receipt along with contributing factors and existing strategies related to policy that have been implemented to address poor care quality. In Chapter Three, facility-level factors related to the CNA’s role and the barriers and facilitators they experience that contribute to infection prevention and control are discussed. In Chapter Four, a systematic review of previous research on racial/ethnic disparities related to influenza and pneumococcal vaccination in NHs, individual, community, and facility-level factors that determine these disparities in influenza and pneumococcal vaccination receipt, along with associated strategies and practices are discussed. In Chapter Five, a national quantitative analysis of vaccination receipt practices (vaccination administered) and reasons for vaccination non-receipt (i.e., not offered versus refused) are presented. The results of this dissertation will inform clinicians and NH administrators as well as future policy and public health interventions and provide evidence needed to improve racial/ethnic minority health and eliminate health disparities.

Graduation date: 2004