Thesis advisor: Andrew Beauchamp / Thesis advisor: Arthur Lewbel / This thesis sheds light on two cutting-edge topics in Labor Economics, peer effects in the workplace and non-cognitive skills, and makes a methodological contribution to the related literature. The literature on peer effects in the workplace seeks to better understand co-workers' effect on an individual's productivity through the interactions among workers beyond the production technology. In the first essay, titled Learning When It Counts: Evidence from Professional Bowling Tournaments, I test the hypothesis that a worker can improve productivity by learning from peer co-workers in high-skill jobs. While demand for high-skill workers has been increasing, high-skill jobs often require workers to make a decision, facing uncertainty underlying their tasks. Highly skilled professionals have deep insights to pick up meaningful patterns of information. Therefore, if they are in an environment that allows them to learn additional information from co-workers, their productivity can improve. In this paper, I examine the productivity effects of learning among high-skill peers about uncertain conditions underlying their tasks with variations in the "space of ideas," exploiting a unique, novel dataset from professional bowling competitions. Specifically, a bowler learns about lane conditions in part by watching his competitor bowl on the same lane. A right-handed bowler learns more relevant (to his task) information from competing with another right-hander than with a left-hander, as the used part of the lanes (the proximate space of ideas) varies with handedness. I compare the probabilities of bowling a strike of bowlers matched with like-handed competitors versus opposite-handed competitors. I find a large impact of the same ideas space on learning, e.g, being paired with a like-handed bowler increases strike probability by 14 percentage points. This finding adds evidence for the existence of peer effects in high-skill jobs. I also show that learning curves exist only when bowlers are in same-handed match-ups, by examining how these differences change from one frame to the next over a game. Another calculation is determining how much total scores could be increased by pairing bowlers to raise the proximity in the space of ideas. These results are suggestive of how much workplaces might increase productivity by optimally pairing workers based on the proximity of the space of ideas. The second topic of this dissertation is non-cognitive skills such as conscientiousness, self-control and social skills. Conventionally, economists have assumed that measures of cognitive skills such as IQ were sufficient to represent the role of human capital in production. However, a growing body of research suggests that non-cognitive skills are important factors in educational attainment and labor outcomes. Recent research in psychology shows that bilingualism can help strengthen social skills and self-control. In the second essay, joint with Tracy Regan and titled Bilingual Advantage in Non-cognitive Skills, we examine the causal relationship between bilingualism and non-cognitive measures, exploiting a large dataset from Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002). To isolate the causality, we use an indicator for whether either parent was foreign-born as an instrumental variable for bilingualism. We find that raising the degree of speaking a language other than English to parents from none to all of the time can increase a student's percentile in the U.S. national distribution by 36 percentage points for conscientiousness (being well organized and working hard) and by 39 and 50 percentage points for instrumental motivation (academic motivation to achieve external goals such as better job opportunities) and persistence (keeping working even in difficulties). In particular, the bilingual advantage in persistence turns out to be significant only for disadvantaged children (the lowest socioeconomic status quartile) but insignificant for the others. These results suggest that bilingualism can be promoted as a policy tool to reduce inequality and call for further research on the relationship between bilingualism and non-cognitive skills. In the final essay, titled Simple Transformation for Finding a Maximum Weighted Matching in General Digraphs, I propose a novel, simple procedure using an existing efficient algorithm to find an optimal pairing that can produce the maximum output. As shown in the first essay, this algorithm can be useful for the optimal deployment of workforces with the consideration of peer effects. Particularly, the procedure is applicable to cases in which the order in a pair matters. The order can complicate the problem of finding optimal pairings, because a pair can have two orders. To address this ordered pairing problem, I devise a simple transformation of a general directed graph to a proper (undirected) graph. Using the transformed graph, a maximum weighted matching can be found, using any existing polynomial-time algorithm for undirected graphs. By recovering orientations in the found matching, a maximum weighted matching for the original directed graph can be found. I prove the matching from the suggested algorithm is always a maximum weighted matching in the directed graph. This thesis contributes to Labor Economics by adding evidence in newly-rising topics. The first chapter shows evidence of peer effect--learning from competitors--among high-skill workers. The second chapter suggests that bilinguals have an advantage in forming non-cognitive skills. The third chapter proposes an algorithm for finding an optimal pairing to maximize the aggregate productivity in the consideration of the learning effect found in the first chapter. I hope that the findings in the thesis will meaningfully contribute to the developing literature of Labor Economics. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2017. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Economics.

Peer relationships encompass an important developmental context for young girls’ understanding of normative social behavior and appearances. In early adolescence, concern for peer acceptance intensifies, as do the rigid standards peers regulate and command for physical appearance. Pressure to conform to group norms of attractiveness leaves girls vulnerable to reduced self-esteem and body dissatisfaction. Based on the life history narratives of 10 pre- and post-pubertal girls of diverse backgrounds, experiences with peers as they relate to pressures and resistances towards appearance conformity are documented through a prospective design. Results support the presence of two highly integrated domains of the peer environment which promote the pervasiveness of appearance-related pressure and body-consciousness for girls transitioning into adolescence: the evaluative external gaze and concerns for peer acceptance. Protective factors are discussed in the context of girls’ friendships and their ability to distance themselves from peer appearance pressure.

Peer relationships encompass an important developmental context for young girls’ understanding of normative social behavior and appearances. In early adolescence, concern for peer acceptance intensifies, as do the rigid standards peers regulate and command for physical appearance. Pressure to conform to group norms of attractiveness leaves girls vulnerable to reduced self-esteem and body dissatisfaction. Based on the life history narratives of 10 pre- and post-pubertal girls of diverse backgrounds, experiences with peers as they relate to pressures and resistances towards appearance conformity are documented through a prospective design. Results support the presence of two highly integrated domains of the peer environment which promote the pervasiveness of appearance-related pressure and body-consciousness for girls transitioning into adolescence: the evaluative external gaze and concerns for peer acceptance. Protective factors are discussed in the context of girls’ friendships and their ability to distance themselves from peer appearance pressure.

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To better understand the relationship of parent and peer factors in contributing to adolescent marijuana use, the present study investigated the direct and indirect effects of perceived parental knowledge and best friend drug use on adolescent marijuana use. Survey responses from 2552 grade 10, 11, and 12 students were used to explore these relationships. As expected, perceived parental knowledge had significant negative relationships with marijuana use and best friend use and best friend use had a significant positive relationship with marijuana use. As expected, males reported more marijuana use and more best friend use than did females. Yet females reported higher levels of perceived parental knowledge than males. Logistic regression revealed that best friend use partially mediated the relationship between perceived parental knowledge and marijuana use. Contrary to expectations, the mediation relationship was the same for males and females. Implications of the findings for the mediation model are discussed. / Family Ecology and Practice

A child 's family is the center of his world during infancy and extending into the preschool years. As a child nears school age and in succeeding years, he reaches out into the world beyond his home environment. He comes in contact with the world of other people who arc not included in his family circle. In this new world of peers, the child finds something he does not find at home. Here are other individuals like himself who have many things in common, such as age, appearance, interests , and desires. We find in this peer culture, children who can better satisfy their growing needs of self-identification and social adjustment by being in a neighborhood gang or just playing together than they can in the home environment alone. Association with peers is an important supplement to a child's associations in the home.

Aggression/victimization in school is a problem that is associated with internalizing and externalizing behaviors which may develop into long term emotional problems for the child.Sixth grade is a transitional period in a child's life, whereby a child experiences hormonal changes, enters a new school and establishes social status. Depending on the child's emotional well-being, these are antecedents that are related to experiencing aggression/victimization. Children develop within a context. Within this context there are parents, adults, siblings, peersand teachers whereby the child learns behaviors through proximal and distal interactions which may impact the child's life either positively or negatively. Within this context the child developsresilience, which is a protective factor that enables the child to "bounce back" from negative situations. The goal of this study is to establish a connection between the environment in which achild develops and the impact emotional well-being, peers and adults have on a child in relation to experiencing aggression and ultimately becoming a victim. The findings indicate that childrenwho suffer from emotional distress are more likely to become victims and children who have supportive adults in their lives are less likely to become victims. Overall, emotional distressplays a negative role and resilience plays a positive and protective role in a child's life. This outcome suggests that prevention/interventions should be created whereby a child has more supportive adults in their lives creating a resilient environment.

Faculty of Health Science Master of Family Medicine / AIM: - To study the knowledge, attitudes and practices of first year students at UCC regarding parental and person alcohol use. OBJECTIVES: -To obtain demographic data on the students and to compare the children of alcoholics with the children of non-alcoholics to determine if any differences existed between the two groups. METHOD: - A questionnaire administered at the start of a lecture. RESULTS: -The students had a good knowledge of alcohol abuse and its causes. The majority was drinking within safe limits, had started drinking while still at school and obtained most of their knowledge about alcohol from their peers. The children of alcoholics felt more at risk of developing a drinking problem and chose careers in arts and food science in preference to others. RECOMMENDATIONS: - Education should take place at school with parental involvement. Special attention should be paid to the children of alcoholics, as they are high-risk.

The purpose of this essay has been to make clear how adolescents understand the phenomenon of being popular among peers. Two questions were tried to be answered: What does it mean to be popular? How does one become popular? Ten adolescents from ages 13 to 18 were interviewed, and this makes the basis of this essay. Seven categories show the result. Social skills were found to be the most important characteristic. A popular adolescent were said to be outgoing, nice, pleasant, have a good sense of humor and also have a well developed feeling for how to behave in different social situations. The appearance did not matter, according to the interviewees. But the popular adolescents did dress in a way that corresponded to the majority of the peers. The body was not important at all. Most of adolescents were assumed to be neither more popular, nor less popular but instead right between these two conceptions – they were average popular. Popular adolescents had nothing in common, when it came to background. Achievements in school did not lead to popularity, but it was important to be well-informed about society, when to chat with peers. Generally, what leisure-time activities adolescents attended were said to have no affect on popularity. Finally, the interviewees thought almost everyone were aware of how popular he or she was, although they supposed that some adolescents could be more popular among peers, without being aware of it. All together, this could roughly be said to be the way for adolescents to become popular among peers, according to this essay: develop your social skills, keep an eye on how your peers dress and follow their fashion and, finally, be well-informed about society. You do not have to do well in school, but show that you are in control of school and marks.

Cheating in British secondary schools has not been previously researched. The aim of this thesis was to ascertain what factors affect cheating in secondary school and why? Initially, four questions were posed: "what is cheating?', "when is it wrong to cheat?', 'what role do parents play' and 'what are teacher perceptions of cheating compared with those of students?'. These questions were addressed by studying the perspectives of students, parents and teachers using a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methodologies, involving nearly 1000 respondents in six studies. Two models were developed. The first, a four dimensional model, explained what students thought cheating was. Cheating was perceived to be comprised of the following interrelated dimensions: non-academic and academic behaviours, a temporal component, assessment events and degrees of severity. The second, a decision model, indicated under what circumstances cheating might be right or wrong. Cheating was wrong for respondents who perceived only negative academic associations, whilst It could be right for others, when motives for cheating were perceived to be honourable. Respondents reported the extent to which they were like students in scenarios who were portrayed to have cheated in a variety of ways. Data from parents and teachers were used to test and amplify these models. Students and teachers held similar perceptions regarding cheating frequency, but not severity. Parents held perceptions of cheating that were more extreme than those of students and teachers. The findings of these studies have major implications for those involved in the wider educational environments of the home, school and society. Recommendations are made regarding cun-ent educational testing policies, the promotion of leaming and the reduction of cheating.