Nanotechnology comprises of the understanding and control of materials and processes at the nanoscale. Among various nanostructured materials, semiconducting nanowires attract much interest for their novel physical properties and potential device applications. The unique properties of these nanowires are based on their high surface to volume ratio and quantum confinement effect. Zinc oxide, having a direct, wide bandgap and large exciton binding energy, is highly appealing for optoelectronic devices. Due to excellent optical and electrical properties, zinc oxide nanowires have been utilized to fabricate various devices such as solar cells, light emitting diodes, transistors and photodetectors. Furthermore, zinc oxide, in its natural state exhibits n-type conductivity. Addition of impurities often leads to remarkable changes in their electrical and optical properties, which open up new application areas. Among the many synthesis methods for zinc oxide nanowires, hydrothermal method is an attractive one due to its easy procedure, simple equipment and low temperature requirements. In this thesis, zinc oxide nanowires were grown and doped by hydrothermal method. Different metal dopants such as copper, silver and aluminum were used for this purpose. These metals were selected as dopants due to their effect on magnetic properties, p-type conduction and electrical conductivity of ZnO nanowires, respectively. Doped nanowires were fully characterized and the changes in their physical properties were investigated. In addition, hydrothermally synthesized pure and aluminum doped zinc oxide nanowires were used as the electrically active components in ultraviolet photodetectors. Silver nanowires were utilized as transparent electrodes. Optoelectronic properties of the detectors were examined. Effect of in-situ annealing and nanowire length was investigated. Short recovery time, around 4 seconds, with a decent on/off ratio of 2600 was obtained. This design provides a simple and cost effective approach for the fabrication of high performance ultraviolet photodetectors.

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This thesis deals with electrical and optical characterization  of p+i–n+ nanowire-based photodetectors/solar  cells. I have investigated their I-V performance and found that all of them exhibit a clear rectifying behavior with an ideality factor around 2.2 at 300K.  used Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to extract their optical properties. From the spectrally resolved photocurrent data, I conclude that the main photocurrent is generated in the i-segment of the nanowire (NW) p-i-n junctions, with negligible  contribution from the substrate.   I also used a C-V technique to investigate the impurity/doping profiles of the NW p+-i-n+ junction.  The technique has been widely used for investigations of doping profiles in planar p-n junctions, in particular with one terminal (n or p) highly doped. To verify the accuracy of the technique, I also used a planar Schottky  sample with an already known doping profile for a test  experiment. The result is very similar to the actual data. When we used the technique to investigate the doping level in the NWs photodetectors grown on InP substrates, the results show a very high capacitance above 800pF which most likely is due to the influence of the parasitic capacitance from the insulating layer of SiO2. Thus,  a new sample design is required to investigate the  doping profiles of NWs.

Nesse trabalho utilizamos um modelo analítico para avaliar o desempenho de estruturas semicondutoras contendo pontos quânticos que servem de base para a fabricação de fotodetectores que operam na faixa do infravermelho. O desempenho desses dispositivos foram avaliados através da corrente no escuro e da detectividade. Os trabalhos existentes na literatura, baseados neste modelo, não consideram a de­ pendência da estrutura eletrônica do ponto quântico com suas dimensões. Desta forma, neste trabalho, analisamos o comportamento da corrente no escuro e da de­tectividade em função de vários parâmetros que definem a estrutura da amostra, levando em consideração as dimensões dos QDs. Nossos resultados mostraram quais parâmetros devemos ajustar para fazer fotodetectores: (1) que contenham a maior densidade de QDs com dimensões compatíveis com a energia de ionização desejada; (2) que maximizam o desempenho do dispositivo e (3) minimizam o ruído do mesmo. / In this work we used an analytical model to calculate the dark current and the detectivity of infrared photodetectors based on InAs quantum dots semiconductor heterostructures. The existing works reported in the literature based on this analytical model do not take into account the electronic structure of the QD in the calculations. In this way, in the present work, we took into account the QD dimensions when we analized the dependence of the dark current and the detectivity on the parameters which define the sample structure. Our findings show which parameters must be adjusted in order to obtain photodetectors with: (1) the larger density of QDs with dimensions compatible with the wanted ionization energy; (2) that maximize the performance; (3) and that minimize the noise of the devices.

Through the history of mankind, novel materials have played a key role in techno- logical progress. As we approach the limits of scaling it becomes difficult to squeeze out any more extensions to Moore’s law by just reducing device feature sizes. It is important to look for an alternate semiconductor to silicon in order to continue making the progress predicted by Moore’s law. Among the various semiconductor options being explored world-wide, the III-nitride semiconductor material system has certain unique characteristics that make it one of the leading contenders. We explore the III-nitride semiconductor material system for the unique advantages that it offers over the other alternatives available to us. This thesis studies the device applications of epitaxial III-nitride films and nanos- tructures grown using plasma assisted molecular beam epitaxy (PAMBE) The material characterisation of the PAMBE grown epitaxial III-nitrides was car- ried out using techniques like high resolution X-ray diffraction (HR-XRD), field emis- sion scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), room temperature photoluminescence (PL) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The epitaxial III-nitrides were then further processed to fabricate devices like Schottky diodes, photodetectors and surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices. The electrical charcterisation of the fabricated devices was carried out using techniques like Hall measurement, IV and CV measure- ments on a DC probe station and S-parameter measurements on a vector network analyser connected to an RF probe station. We begin our work on Schottky diodes by explaining the motivation for adding an interfacial layer in a metal-semiconductor Schottky contact and how high-k di- electrics like HfO2 have been relatively unexplored in this application. We report the work carried out on the Pt/n-GaN metal-semiconductor (MS) Schottky and the Pt/HfO2/n-GaN metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) Schottky diode. We report an improvement in the diode parameters like barrier height (0.52 eV to 0.63 eV), ideality factor (2.1 to 1.3) and rectification ratio (35.9 to 98.9 @2V bias) after the introduction of 5 nm of HfO2 as the interfacial layer. Temperature dependent I-V measurements were done to gain a further understanding of the interface. We observe that the barrier height and ideality factor exhibit a temperature dependence. This was attributed to inhomogeneities at the interface and by assuming a Gaussian distribution of barrier heights. UV and IR photodetectors using III-nitrides are then studied. Our work on UV photodetectors describes the growth of epitaxial GaN films. Au nanoparticles were fabricated on these films using thermal evaporation and annealing. Al nanostruc- tures were fabricated using nanosphere lithography. Plasmonic enhancement using these metallic nanostructures was explored by fabricating metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors. We observed plasmonic enhancement of photocurrent in both cases. To obtain greater improvement, we etched down on the GaN film using reac tive ion etching (RIE). This resulted in further increase in photocurrent along with a reduction in dark current which was attributed to creation of new trap states. IR photodetectors studied in this thesis are InN quantum dots whose density can be controlled by varying the indium flux during growth. We observe that increase in InN quantum dot density results in increase in photocurrent and decrease in dark current in the fabricated IR photodetectors. We then explore the advantages that InGaN offers as a material that supports surface acoustic waves and fabricate InGaN based surface acoustic wave devices. We describe the growth of epitaxial In0.23 Ga0.77 N films on GaN template using molecular beam epitaxy. Material characterisation was carried out using HR-XRD, FESEM, PL and TEM. The composition was determined from HR-XRD and PL measurements and both results matched each other. This was followed by the fabrication of interdigited electrodes with finger spacing of 10 µm. S-parameter results showed a transmission peak at 104 MHz with an insertion loss of 19 dB. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of an InGaN based SAW device. In summary, this thesis demonstrates the practical advantages of epitaxially grown film and nanostructured III-nitride materials such as GaN, InN and InGaN using plasma assisted molecular beam epitaxy for Schottky diodes, UV and IR photodetec- tors and surface acoustic wave devices.

Abstract This thesis describes position-sensitive devices (PSDs) and optical sensor systems suitable for industrial tracking and displacement sensing applications. The main application areas of the proposed sensors include automatic pointing of a rangefinder beam and measuring the lateral displacement of an object. A conventional tracking sensor is composed of a laser illuminator, a misfocused quadrant detector (QD) receiver and a corner cube retroreflector (CCR) attached to the target. The angular displacement of a target from the receiver optical axis is detected by illuminating the target and determining the direction of the reflection using the QD receiver. The main contribution of the thesis is related to the modifications proposed for this conventional construction in order to make its performance sufficient for industrial applications that require a few millimetre to submillimetre accuracy. The work includes sensor optical construction modifications and the designing of new types of PSDs. The conventional QD-based sensor, although electrically very sensitive, is not considered optimal for industrial applications since its precision is severely hampered by atmospheric turbulence due to the misfocusing needed for its operation. Replacing the CCR with a sheet reflector is found to improve the precision of the conventional sensor construction in outdoor beam pointing applications, and is estimated to allow subcentimetre precision over distances of up to 100 m under most operating conditions. Submillimetre accuracy is achievable in close-range beam pointing applications using a small piece of sheet reflector, coaxial illumination and a focused QD receiver. Polarisation filtering is found to be effective in eliminating the main error contributor in close-range applications, which is low reflector background contrast, especially in cases when a sheet reflector has a specularly reflecting background. The tracking sensor construction is also proposed for measuring the aiming trajectory of a firearm in an outdoor environment. This time an order of magnitude improvement in precision is achieved by replacing the QD with a focused lateral effect photodiode (LEP). Use of this construction in cases of intermediate atmospheric turbulence allows a precision better than 1 cm to be achieved up to a distance of 300 m. A method based on averaging the positions of multiple reflectors is also proposed in order to improve the precision in turbulence-limited cases. Finally, various types of custom-designed PSDs utilising a photodetector array structure are presented for long-range displacement sensing applications. The goal was to be able to replace the noisy LEP with a low-noise PSD without compromising the low turbulence sensitivity achievable with the LEP. An order of magnitude improvement in incremental sensitivity is achievable with the proposed array PSDs.

Metal-halide perovskites have attracted intense research endeavors because of their excellent optical and electronic properties. Different kinds of electronic and optoelectronic devices have been fabricated using perovskites. A feasible approach to utilize these properties in real device applications with improved performance and new functionalities is by fabricating heterostructures with extraneous materials. We have developed mixed-dimensional heterostructure systems using three-dimensional (3D) metal-halide perovskites and different types of different two-dimensional (2D) materials, including semimetal graphene, semiconducting phosphorus-doped graphitic-C3N4 sheets (PCN-S), and plasmonic Nb2CTx MXenes. First, selective growth of single-crystalline MAPbBr3 platelets on monolayer graphene by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is achieved to prepare the MAPbBr3/graphene heterostructures. P-type doping from MAPbBr3 is observed in the monolayer graphene with a decreased work function of 272 meV under illumination. The photoresponse of the fabricated phototransistor heterostructure verifies the enhanced p-type character in graphene. Such kind of charge transfer can be used to improve device performance. Then, bulk-heterojunctions made of MAPbI3-xClx and PCN-S are prepared in solution. The matched band diagram and the midgap states in PCN-S present a convenient and efficient approach to reduce the dark current and increase the photocurrent of the as-fabricated photodetectors. As a result, the on/off ratio increases from 103 to 105, and the detectivity is up to 1013 Jones with an order of magnitude enhancement compared to the perovskite-only device. Last, plasmonic Nb2CTx MXenes and MAPbI3 heterostructures are prepared for photodiodes to broaden the detection band to near-infrared (NIR) lights. The use of the perovskite layer expanded the operation of the diode to the visible range while suppressing the dark current of the NIR-absorbing Nb2CTx layer. The fabricated photodiode reveals a detectivity of 0.25 A/W with a linear dynamic range of 96 dB in the visible region. In the NIR region, the device demonstrates an increased on/off ratio from less than 2 to near 103 and much faster response times of less than 30 ms. The improved performance is attributed to the passivation of the MAPbI3/Nb2CTx interface.

In this dissertation, the design and fabrication of deep-ultraviolet photodetectors were investigated based on gallium oxide and its alloys, through the heterogeneous integration with metallic and other inorganic materials. The crystallographic properties of oxide films grown directly and indirectly on silicon, magnesium oxide, and sapphire are examined, and the challenges that hinder the realization of efficient and reliable deep-ultraviolet photodetectors are described. In recent years, single-crystalline heterojunction photodiodes employing beta-polymorph gallium oxide thin films as the main absorption layers have been studied. However, reports in the literature generally lack a thorough examination of epitaxial growth processes of high-quality single-crystalline beta-polymorph gallium oxide thin films on metals, such as transition metal nitrides. My research was initiated by demonstrating an ultraviolet-C photodetector based on an amorphous aluminum gallium oxide photoconductive layer grown directly on (100)-oriented silicon. The solar-blind photodetector exhibited a peak spectral responsivity of 1.17 A/W. This is the first reported gallium oxide-based photodetector to have been grown and fabricated directly on silicon. The growth of high-quality monoclinic crystals on cubic silicon is a challenging process, which is largely due to the large lattice mismatch that compromises the crystal quality of the oxide layer, and leads to the degradation of device performance. This issue was addressed by growing the material on substrates with metal nitride templates, which resulted in improvements to the oxide crystal quality. Consequently, high optical gain ultraviolet-C photodetectors were fabricated based on a beta-polymorph gallium oxide photoconductive layer grown on magnesium oxide and silicon substrates with titanium nitride templates. The enhanced solar-blind photodetectors exhibited peak spectral responsivity levels as high as 276 A/W. Moreover, thin polymorphic gallium oxide films were grown on c-plane sapphire using pulsed laser deposition for the first time. The stacked thin films, namely epsilon- and beta-polymorph gallium oxide, were sequentially grown under the same conditions. X-ray diffraction measurements and transmission electron microscopy micrographs confirmed a heteroepitaxially grown beta-polymorph gallium oxide on a heterogeneously nucleated epsilon-polymorph gallium oxide polymorphic heterostructure on c-plane sapphire, which had rocking-curve widths of 1.4° (β-Ga2O3 (−603)) and 0.6° (ε-Ga2O3 (006)).

Optical wireless communication, taking advantage of the unlicensed ultraviolet-to visible wavelength region of the electromagnetic spectrum, had been coined as the next-generation wireless communication technology and holds promises to deliver a high-speed, reliable, and secured broadband experience. The push towards the optical-based medium is manifested by the demand for additional channel bandwidth to accommodate the rapid growth of the Internet-of-Things (IoT) and Internet-of-Underwater-Things (IoUT). Therefore, high-bitrate optoelectronics devices and components forming the transceiver units used in an optical wireless communication system require substantial progression to accelerate the development of this paradigm-shifting technology. In this dissertation, we demonstrated a plethora of optical detection platforms to circumvent the existing long-standing issues related to modulation bandwidth, wavelength-selectiveness, and solar-blind ultraviolet-C detection found in conventional planar silicon-based optical detectors. Herein, we presented the semipolar group-III-nitride-based micro-photodiodes for enabling up to Gbit/s optical detection in the ultraviolet-to-violet domain. The wavelength-selectiveness nature of the micro-photodiodes enabled a bitrate of up to 1.5 Gbit/s based on a power-saving on-off-keying modulation scheme. While it offers a high bitrate for the optical communication link, it restricts its detection size and angle-of-view due to the conventional resistance-capacitance and étendue limits. Therefore, we also explored using polymer-based scintillating fibers as a high-speed and near-omnidirectional optical detection platform to cater to various dynamic scenarios in optical wireless communication. The detection platform formed by the scintillating fibers enabled near-omnidirectional and large-area optical detection without sacrificing the modulation bandwidth. These investigations paved the way towards relieving the resistance-capacitance limit while addressing the pointing, acquisition, and tracking issue in underwater wireless optical communication. Subsequently, we also presented a novel wavelength-converting mechanism based on halide-perovskite nanocrystals and a conventional silicon-based platform. This demonstration addressed the lack of ultraviolet-C optical detectors in the existing market and enabled future solar-blind optical communication links. Finally, we also presented on halide-perovskite polymer-based scintillating fibers as the high-bitrate and near-omnidirectional optical detection platform. Our studies successfully addressed the existing inadequacy for high-bitrate photodetection. These works could play a significant role in progressing the technology forward, based on bottom-up material and devices innovation, to offer a reliable internet connection to the future highly interconnected society.

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