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Photoswitchable molecular materials are of interest for optical data storage, optically controlled electronics, and light-controlled molecular machines or ‗smart‘ surfaces. A promising way to incorporate optical switchability into materials is by using organic photochromic molecules—which convert reversibly between two forms with light—as ligands in coordination complexes. This design allows for the intimate communication between ligand and metal such that light-induced photoisomerization may be used to modulate metal-based properties. Spirooxazines, photochromic systems that photochemically isomerize between nonconjugated ring-closed spirooxazine (SO) and highly conjugated ring-opened photomerocyanine (PMC) forms, were derivatized with a phenanthroline moiety to enable the binding of transition-metal ions. Two phenanthroline–spirooxazines, an indolyl derivative and an azahomoadamantyl derivative, were investigated in the context of chemical substitution and medium effects. The ring-opened PMC forms of the spirooxazines were characterized by solid- and/or solution-state methods to extract the relative contributions of the canonical quinoidal and zwitterionic resonance forms to their molecular structure. The PMC form of the azahomoadamantyl derivative was found to exhibit significant zwitterionic character, with demonstrated sensitivity to medium polarity. The pronounced zwitterionic character was correlated with the high stability of the PMC form, high photoresponsivity, and slow thermal relaxation rates in this class of spirooxazines. The relative ligand field strengths of the SO and PMC forms of the two phenanthroline–spirooxazines were analyzed using the FT-IR and 13C NMR carbonyl signals of their molybdenum–tetracarbonyl– spirooxazine complexes. Differences in metal–ligand bonding in the SO and PMC forms were also investigated by a density functional theory fragment molecular orbital analysis. The SO form was found to be a better π-acceptor both empirically and theoretically. Lastly, the spirooxazine ligands were incorporated into electronically bistable cobalt– dioxolene redox isomers, where the low-spin-CoIII/high-spin-CoII equilibrium is sensitive to ligand field strength. Using solution-state spectroscopic methods, it was shown that the redox state of the cobalt centre could be modulated through photoisomerization of the spirooxazine ligand. As changes in cobalt redox state are associated with changes in magnetic spin state, this system forms the basis for a room-temperature photomagnetic material and highlights the powerful role of photochromic phenanthroline–spirooxazine ligands in developing photoswitchable multifunctional materials. / Graduate / 0485

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Le récepteur du glutamate de type NMDA (NMDAR) est l'un des deux principaux récepteurs glutamatergiques, et donc un des principaux mediateurs de la neurotransmission excitatrice dans le système nerveux central. Les NMDARs sont impliqués dans la plasticité synaptique, le corrélat cellulaire de l'apprentissage et de la mémoire. Actuellement, la technologie de pointe permettant l'investigation des propriétés des récepteurs synaptiques dans leur environnement natif est la photolyse de composés chimiques cagés, mais cet outil a des limitations concernant sa capacité à stimuler des NMDAR de manière très précise spatiellement et temporellement, à cause de la limite de diffraction de la lumière, qui définit le volume minimal de décageage duquel les molécules diffusent, et à cause de la nature irréversible de la réaction de décageage. En revanche, les molécules photoréversibles peuvent être activées et désactivées rapidement et de manière repétée, ce qui permet d'éviter les limitations de la diffusion afin d'accomplir une stimulation plus précise au niveau spatial et temporel. J'ai établi une collaboration autour du premier composé chimique photoréversible spécifique pour les NMDAR, et de plus, le premier qui est inactif dans son état le plus stable : l'azobenzene triazole glutamate (ATG). J'ai caracterisé ce composé chimique par activation un-photon et bi-photon, par l'application en bain et l'application locale, et dans plusieurs paradigmes expérimentaux. Dans ma thèse, je décris le fonctionnement de ce composé chimique, ses avantages et ses inconvénients, et certaines modifications à considérer pour l'optimisation future des composés chimiques photoréversibles. / The NMDA-type glutamate receptor (NMDAR) is one of two principal glutamate receptors, the main mediators of excitatory neurotransmission in the central nervous system. NMDARs are critically implicated in synaptic plasticity, the cellular correlate of learning and memory. Although significant advances have been made in understanding the behavior of this receptor, many questions remain. Currently, the state-of-the-art technology for investigating receptor properties in the native environment is caged compounds, which are restricted in their ability to precisely control the spatial and temporal activation of NMDAR due to the diffraction limit of light, which defines the minimum volume of uncaging from whence uncaging molecules diffuse, and the irreversible nature of uncaging. Photoswitchable molecules, by contrast, can rapidly and repeatedly be switched on and off, circumventing the diffusion limitation to permit fine spatial and temporal control of receptor activation. With this in mind, I formed a collaboration with a team of chemists to characterize a novel compound, azobenzene triazole glutamate (ATG), the first photoswitchable compound specific for NMDAR and biologically inert in its thermally stable state. Such a tool holds great promise for finely probing receptor behavior in its native environment. I characterized this compound using one- and two-photon activation, through bath and local application, and through a variety of different experimental paradigms. I demonstrate in detail the properties of this novel compound, propose potential applications of ATG as a novel tool, and suggest possible modifications to optimize future photoswitchable compound design.

In an effort to develop broadly applicable photoswitchable catalysts, we have reported a method for modulating N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) donicity using light by incorporating a photochromic diarylethene (DAE) into the backbone of a NHC scaffold. UV irradiation of 4,5-dithienylimidazolone or an analogous NHC-Ir(CO)₂Cl complex effected a photocyclization between the two thiophene rings, which led to a change in the electron donating ability of the NHC scaffold. Subsequent exposure to visible light reversed the photocyclization reaction. The concept of photo-modulating NHC donicity in this manner enabled photoswitchable NHC organocatalysis. The catalytic activity of a DAE-annulated imidazolium pre-catalyst in transesterification and amidation reactions was successfully switched between the active and nearly inactive states ([kappa]vis/[kappa]UV = 100) upon alternate UV ([lambda]irr = 313 nm) or visible ([lambda]irr > 500 nm) irradiation. The photoswitchable NHC organocatalysis was later extended to facilitating ring-opening polymerizations of cyclic esters, the rates of which were controlled via external light stimuli. Additionally, a photochromic dithienylethene-annulated N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC)-Rh(I) complex was synthesized and enabled photoswitching of the catalytic activity in series of hydroboration reactions. All of the examples demonstrate extremely rare instances of photomodulating a catalyst's activity by tuning its electronic properties. Furthermore, by taking advantage of the versatility of NHCs in both organo- and organometallic catalysis, we have developed novel photoswitchable catalysts for a variety of applicable transformations. Nanoparticles that can be transported in subsurface reservoirs at high salinities and temperatures are expected to have a major impact on enhanced oil recovery and electromagnetic imaging. We have developed an approach that will facilitate nanopaticle transport through porous media at high salinity by adsorbing or grafting rationally designed co-polymers on platform nanoparticles. Notably, co-polymers of acrylic acid with either 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonate or styrenesulfonate have been electrostatically adsorbed or covalently grafted onto iron oxide nanoclusters. The presence of sulfonate groups on the iron oxide surface enabled long-term colloidal stability of the particles in extremely concentrated brine (8% wt. NaCl + 2% wt. CaCl₂) at elevated temperatures (90 °C) and minimized their adsorption on model mineral surfaces. / text

In recent years, localization-based super-resolution imaging has been developed to overcome the diffraction limit of far-field fluorescence microscopy. Photoswitchable probes are a hallmark of this technique. Their fluorescence can be modulated between an emissive and dark state whereby the sequential, nanoscale measurement of individual fluorophore positions can be used to reconstruct an image at higher spatial resolution. Despite the importance of photoswitchable probes for localization-based super-resolution imaging, both a mechanistic and quantitative understanding of the essential photoswitching properties is lacking for most fluorophores. In this thesis, we begin to address this need. Furthermore, we demonstrate the development of new probes and methodologies for both multicolor and live-cell super-resolution imaging. Chapter 2 describes our mechanistic insights into the photoswitching of a common class of dyes called carbocyanines. Red carbocyanines, such as Cy5, enter a long-lived dark state upon illumination with red light in the presence of a primary thiol. We show that the dark state is a covalent conjugate between the thiol and dye and that this dark state recovers by illumination with ultraviolet light. We also speculate on possible reactivation mechanisms. Our mechanistic studies may ultimately lead to the creation of new probes with improved photoswitching properties. Chapter 3 details our quantitative characterization of the photoswitching properties of 26 organic dyes, including carbocyanines and several other structural classes. We define the essential properties of photoswitchable probes, including photons per switching event, on/off duty cycle, photostability, and number of switching cycles, and demonstrate how these properties dictate super-resolution image quality. This rigorous evaluation will enable more effective use of probes. In Chapters 4 and 5, we focus on expanding the super-resolution toolbox with novel strategies for multicolor and live-cell imaging. Chapter 4 discusses two approaches we have developed for multicolor super-resolution imaging, which distinguish probes based on either the color of activation or emission light. These tools allow multiple cellular targets to be resolved with high spatial resolution. Lastly, Chapter 5 introduces a method for targeted cellular labeling with photoswitchable probes using a small peptide tag, as well as a new sulfonate-protection strategy for intracellular delivery of high performing photoswitchable dyes.

Fluorescence microscopy is an essential technique for live cell imaging. One of its drawbacks is a rather low diffraction limited spatial resolution, which is described by Abbe diffraction law. Therefore, in the last decade a lot of new methods improving spatial resolution were developed. One of them is dynamic saturation optical microscopy (DSOM) that is based on spatial monitoring of reversible transition kinetics between bright and dark states of fluorophores. The dark state is possible to obtain for example by using reversibly photoswitchable fluorescent proteins such as Dronpa and its variants. These proteins undergo reversible transition from fluorescent to nonfluorescent state after irradiation by blue and ultraviolet light. In my work I focus on employing the kinetics of controllable photoswitching of Dronpa in improving the overall image quality, including the spatial resolution. The experiments were performed on yeasts expressing selected proteins labelled with Dronpa. Firstly, photoswitching behaviour of Dronpa was confirmed. Secondly, experimental conditions were optimized by studying dependence of switching rate on laser intensities and on excitation wavelength and by studying protein photostability. Experiments were performed on different timescales and for various proteins. Using the optimal...

Ziel der Arbeit war die Synthese von Derivaten des Azobenzols mit Silananker zur Darstellung photoschaltbarer Oberflächen. Dies ist ein Ansatz zum Aufbau photoschaltbarer Oberflächen, bei der nur ein Reaktionsschritt an der Oberfläche benötigt wird und keine weitere Oberflächenreaktion zur Funktionalisierung der Oberfläche gebraucht wird, wie sie in der Literatur beschrieben werden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird eine Vorschrift zur Synthese photoschaltbarer Organosilane mit unterschiedlichen Endgruppen beschrieben. Dieses Verfahren basiert auf der Darstellung photoschaltbarer Organothiole auf Goldoberflächen. Die Charakterisierung der synthetisierten Verbindungen erfolgt mittels 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, IR, DC und GC-MS. Die analytische Kontrolle der Edukte und der weiteren synthetisierten Zwischenstufen mit endständigen funktionellen Gruppen und aller photoschaltbaren Organosilane zeigt, dass alle photoschaltbaren Organosilane erfolgreich synthetisiert werden, jedoch mit unterschiedlicher Reinheit. Auf Grund der Silanankergruppe wird jede dieser Verbindungen kovalent auf eine SiO2-Oberfläche gebunden. Die Schichtdicke wird mittels Ellipsometrie bestimmt und eine weitere Charakterisierung erfolgte durch die Bestimmung des Kontaktwinkels verschiedener Flüssigkeiten. Die Synthese der Derivate des Azobenzols mit Silananker erfolgt in mehreren Stufen. Im ersten Schritt erfolgt die Darstellung eines Farbstoffs durch ein in para-Stellung substituiertes Anilin über die Azokupplung. Im zweiten Schritt wird eine Alkylkette durch eine nukleophile Substitution mit 11-Brom-1-undecen bzw. 6-Brom-1-hexen erreicht und im dritten Syntheseschritt wird eine Silanankergruppe mittels Hydrosilylierung angebunden. Die Beschichtung von SiO2-Oberflächen wird durch den Prozess der Self-Assembled Monolayer erreicht. Dabei werden monosubstituierte Organochlorsilane verwendet, da diese im Gegensatz zu Trichlorsilanen bessere Monolayer ausbilden. Es werden verschiedene endständige funktionelle Gruppen eingeführt, so dass mit steigender Kettenlänge immer dickere bzw. dichtere Schichten gebildet werden. Die unterschiedliche Ausbildung eines Oberflächenfilms eines photoschaltbaren Azofarbstoffes nach der ersten bzw. zweiten Synthesestufe mit endständiger C10-Kette als funktionelle Gruppe an einer Wasser-Luft-Grenzfläche wird mit der Brewster-Winkel-Mikroskopie in Kombination mit einem Langmuir-Pockels-Trog gezeigt. Der höhere Platzbedarf für die cis-Konfiguration im Gegensatz zur trans-Konfiguration wird nach Bestrahlung der Oberfläche aus den aufgenommenen Schubflächen-Isothermen bestimmt. Die für die Photoisomerisierung benötigten scheinbaren Aktivierungsenergien werden mittels Arrhenius-Gleichung an Hand der UV-/VIS-Spektren bestimmt und diskutiert. Es wird gezeigt, dass diese nicht nur abhängig von dem Substituenten R, sondern auch von den verwendeten Lösungsmitteln sind, wobei diese Abhängigkeit auf der Grundlage der verschiedenen Reaktionsmechanismen der Photoisomerisierung erörtert wird. Bei allen Farbstoffen wird eine trans-/cis-Konfigurations-änderung der chemischen Verbindung bei Bestrahlung mit Licht entsprechender Wellenlängen in verschiedenen Lösungsmitteln beobachtet. Die nachfolgende Rückreaktion (cis-/trans-Konfigurationsänderung) wird nur bei denjenigen Farbstoffen beobachtet, die einen hohen Extinktionskoeffizienten in Lösung besitzen. Die Beeinflussung der Benetzbarkeit wird während der Konfigurationsänderung auf diesen photoschaltbaren Oberflächen durch Kontaktwinkelmessungen untersucht. Diese wird durch die Bildung einer homogenen Oberfläche beeinflusst. Die Homogenität der Oberfläche zeigt die Hysterese, die abhängt von den funktionellen Gruppen der synthetisierten photoschaltbaren Organosilane. Die trans-/cis-Konfigurationsänderung auf einer Oberfläche erfolgte durch Bestrahlung der Oberfläche mit UV- bzw. blauem Licht. Die Einführung einer Alkylkette (C5 bzw. C10) als funktionelle Endgruppe führt zum Teil zu einer Verbesserung der Homogenität der Oberfläche. Durch Mischbeschichtungen von photoschaltbaren und nicht-photoschaltbaren verbessert sich die Änderung des Kontaktwinkels bei der Bestrahlung der photoschalbaren Oberflächen nicht, so dass auch andere Lösungsansätze z.B. die Verwendung anderer Oberflächen, die Erhöhung der Konzentration der photoschaltbaren Verbindungen an der Oberfläche oder der Einsatz hydrophiler Endgruppen in der Diskussion berücksichtigt werden.

Fluorescence microscopy offers the opportunity to image biological samples noninvasively in real time and has become an essential analytical tool in the biomedical laboratory. Nonetheless, the phenomenon of diffraction imposes stringent limitations on the resolving power of conventional microscopes, preventing the spatial resolution of fluorescent species co-localized within areas of nanoscaled dimensions. Time, however, can be exploited to distinguish fluorophores within the same subdiffraction area, if their fluorescence can be switched independently, and reconstruct sequentially their spatial distribution. In this context, photolytic reactions and photochromic transformations can be invoked to switch fluorescence under optical control. Fluorescent units, such as inorganic semiconductor nanoparticles and organic dyes, and photoactive components can be operated within a common supramolecular matrix or integrated within the same molecular construct to produce photoswitchable fluorescent assemblies. In the resulting systems, electronic communication between the components can be designed in order to photoactivate or photodeactivate fluorescence respectively. Both mechanisms can be exploited to overcome diffraction, and ultimately permit the reconstruction of images with resolution down to the nanometer level, in combination with appropriate illumination protocols.

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