A Thesis submitted for the faculty of Science at the University of Witwatersrand Johannesburg, in the fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry. Johannesburg, November 2016. / The synthesis of carbon spheres (solid and hollow) for application in organic photovoltaics and chemical sensors is a means of using inexpensive and readily processable carbons to eliminate global warming and to monitor harmful gases. The synthesis conditions used to make solid carbon spheres can also be used to tailor their structural, paramagnetic and thermal properties. More so, the ability to tailor the morphology, surface, structural and electronic properties of the hollow carbon spheres by a templating method is an added advantage to their applicability in electronic devices. Solid carbon spheres were synthesized by a vertically oriented chemical vapor deposition (CVD) reactor using acetylene as a carbon source and argon or hydrogen as the carrier gas. The flow rates of the acetylene or carrier gases determined the particle sizes of the carbon spheres. Annealing of carbon spheres in hydrogen resulted in an increase in thermal stability, fewer defects and narrower paramagnetic signals relative to the carbon spheres annealed in argon gas. In contrast, carbon spheres annealed in argon exhibited an increase in the number of defects, a decrease in thermal stability and broader paramagnetic signals. Doped carbon spheres portrayed an increase in ID/IG ratios, a decrease in thermal stability and stronger paramagnetic signals due to the presence of defects induced by nitrogen. The N doped carbon spheres synthesized in H2 comprised of 48% pyridinic-N, 22% pyrrolic-N and 24% quaternary -N while the N doped spheres obtained in the presence of Ar had 17% pyridinic- N, 20% pyrrolic-N and 49% quaternary-N. The presence of a higher percentage of pyridinic- N confirms the presence of more edge defects in carbon spheres synthesized under H2 gas corroborating with the stronger paramagnetic signal observed from the ESR spectra. Consequently, a higher N/C ratio was exhibited in the N doped CSs obtained in the presence of H2 (4.96) than in the presence of Ar (3.68). This could be attributed to the presence of edge defects in carbon spheres synthesized in the presence of H2 gas. The induction of edge defects in carbon spheres in the presence of H2 gas without the aid of a metal catalyst opens a platform for regulating surface and catalytic reactions using H2 gas. Pristine and mesoporous SiO2 spheres were synthesized using a modified Stober method. Carbonization of the pristine SiO2, pristine SiO2@PVP, mesoporous SiO2 and mesoporous SiO2@PVP spheres was carried out using a bubbling method with toluene as the carbon source and argon as the carrier gas in a CVD reactor for 1 h. Upon SiO2 removal, hollow carbon nanostructures of varying morphologies were obtained. The polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) adsorption time, PVP concentration, SiO2 mesoporosity, SiO2 particle size dispersion, and carbonization time played a role in the formation of unique hollow carbon nanostructures; complete HCSs, broken HCSs, deformed HCSs, edge connected, open ended, wormlike and bubble-like HCSs. The mesoporous broken HCSs and open ended HCSs portrayed a hierarchical structure with a bimodal pore size distribution. The surface area properties of these materials and the ease of control of the carbon morphology gives an insight into the application of these materials as dye adsorbents. The effect of the size dispersion of Au@SiO2 sphere templates for the synthesis of hollow carbon structures was evaluated using a CVD nanocasting method. The diameter of the template, the presence of the gold nanoparticles and the amount of PVP determined the size, thickness and shape of the synthesized carbon nanostructures. Carbonization (and SiO2 removal) of Au@polydispersed silica spheres for 1 h gave a graphene-like HCS layer while longer times (2-4 h) gave nanotube like (or worm like) HCSs. These results highlight the potential use of Au@carbon core shell structures for the generation of few layered graphene-like unusual nanostructures. As a proof of concept, the wormlike carbon structures were incorporated in organic solar cells and found to give a measurable photovoltaic response. The incorporation of Au nanospheres and nanorods in a hole transport layer (PEDOT:PSS) of a solar cell device increased the current density and the photo-conversion efficiency of the device due to the local surface plasmon resonance and enhanced light scattering effects of gold. However, high series resistance and leakage currents were obtained due to barrier centres created by uneven dispersion of Au nanaorods within the polymer matrix. The performance of bulk heterojunction organic photovoltaic cells based on poly(3-hexylthiophene- 2,5-diyl) (P3HT) and 6,6-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) processed from chlorobenzene solution can be enhanced by solution heat treatment of the blend. The morphology of films spin coated from the heat treated blend solution reveals a more favourable diffusion of PCBM into the P3HT matrix than heating of the individual solutions separately. The films obtained from heat treated P3HT and PCBM solutions had a more homogeneous dispersion and enhanced light absorption than those obtained from solutions heat treated separately. There was a significant improvement in the performance for devices made from a solution heat treated blends relative to the non-treated blend; a maximum power conversion efficiency of 3.5% and a fill factor up to 43% was achieved under Air Mass 1.5 at 100 mW/cm2 illumination. This study also reports on the sensing characteristics of ammonia in humid environment by hollow carbon spheres, hollow carbon spheres-polyvinylpyrrolidone composite and annealed hollow carbon spheres, at 20°C and 40°C. For device fabrication, a surfactant assisted method was used to homogeneously disperse the hollow carbon spheres, allowing their deposition onto an interdigitated electrode by casting. An enhanced response and recovery time of the devices was observed at the higher working temperature. Annealing of the hollow carbon spheres resulted in a tremendous decrease in the humidity dependent ammonia sensing due to a decrease in the number of the oxygenated groups and defects in their structure. The presence of hydroxyl groups on the pristine hollow carbon sphere surface resulted in an enhanced proton conductivity. However, the ammonia sensitivity at high relative humidity in the pristine hollow carbon spheres is negligible due to the inhibition of ammonia adsorption sites by the high concentration of water molecules. The sensor response was investigated by varying both ammonia concentration and relative humidity, determining the topology of the response as a function of these two variables, and applying a tristimulus analysis in an attempt to determine the ammonia concentration independently of the relative humidity. This study demonstrates the critical role played by humidity and surface chemistry in the ammonia sensing properties of hollow carbon spheres. The studies reveal the day to day application of ammonia sensors, with temperature and humidity playing a critical role in the carbon based sensor response and recovery of the materials. These carbon based sensors that simultaneously measure ammonia and relative humidity could be applied in agricultural industries to monitor ammonia concentration in soils, fishponds and in food industries to monitor meat spoilage. / LG2017

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Missouri--Rolla, 2007. / Vita. The entire thesis text is included in file. Title from title screen of thesis/dissertation PDF file (viewed April 17, 2007) Includes bibliographical references (p. 88-91).

Τα τελευταία χρόνια, υπό την πίεση της ολοένα αυξανόμενης επιβάρυνσης του περιβάλλοντος από την χρήση ορυκτών καυσίμων και υπό τον φόβο των μεγάλων κλιματικών αλλαγών των οποίων ήδη γινόμαστε μάρτυρες, έχει γίνει πολύς λόγος για την χρήση οικολογικών και περιβαλλοντικά φιλικών ενεργειακών λύσεων. Έτσι, έχουν χυθεί τόνοι μελανιού και έχουν ξοδευθεί δισεκατομμύρια χρηματικές μονάδες στις έρευνες για την εύρεση νέων μορφών ανανεώσιμης ενέργειας και βελτιστοποίηση της απόδοσης των ήδη υπαρχόντων. Μία λοιπόν ευρέως διαδεδομένη ανανεώσιμη μορφή ενέργειας, η οποία έχει βρει πεδίο ανάπτυξης και στην χώρα μας (υπό τον φόβο δυστυχώς των προστίμων της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης και όχι από την ανάπτυξη εγγενούς περιβαλλοντικής συνείδησης), είναι η τεχνολογία των φωτοβολταϊκών (ΦΒ). Πρόκειται για μία αρκετά γνωστή στους επιστήμονες και τις ερευνητικές ομάδες ανανεώσιμη πηγή ενέργειας, των οποίων οι προσπάθειες έχουν μειώσει το κόστος των ΦΒ σε τέτοια επίπεδα, ώστε να κρίνεται οικονομικά συμφέρουσα μία επένδυση σε αυτά, ακόμα και για κατόχους μικρών κεφαλαίων. Η μορφή της ενέργειας όμως που παράγεται από μία ΦΒ συστοιχία δεν είναι άμεσα εκμεταλλεύσιμη, καθώς η συνεχής τάση που αυτά παράγουν δεν είναι κατάλληλη ούτε για μεταφορά από το δημόσιο δίκτυο ηλεκτρισμού, ούτε για κατανάλωση από τα φορτία, τα οποία λειτουργούν υπό εναλλασσόμενη τάση. Επομένως, μία συστοιχία για να είναι κατάλληλη προς σύνδεση στο δίκτυο, πρέπει να συνοδεύεται από κατάλληλες διατάξεις, η οποίες επιτρέπουν την μετατροπή της ενέργειας σε κατάλληλη μορφή, αλλά και τον βέλτιστο έλεγχό της. Σκοπός λοιπόν της παρούσας εργασίας είναι η αναφορά στις κύριες δομές λειτουργίας και ελέγχου ΦΒ διασυνδεδεμένων στο δίκτυο, καθώς η περίπτωση αυτή είναι η πιο πολύπλοκη, λόγω της δυναμικής που εισάγει μία σύνδεση με το δίκτυο μεταφοράς. Η δε δομή της διαμορφώνεται ως ακολούθως: 1o Κεφάλαιο: Δομές Ηλεκτρονικών Ισχύος για την Διασύνδεση στο Δίκτυο ΦΒ Συστημάτων Γίνεται μία γενική αναφορά στις υπάρχουσες τεχνολογίες αντιστροφέων και επιχειρείται μία γενική ομαδοποίηση τους 2ο Κεφάλαιο: Ανασκόπηση μονοφασικών διασυνδεδεμένων αντιστροφέων για ΦΒ πλαίσια Παρουσιάζονται γενικές τοπολογίες μονοφασικών αντιστροφέων, ταξινομούνται και συγκρίνονται ως προς διάφορα χαρακτηριστικά. 3ο Κεφάλαιο: Σύγκριση τεχνικών ανίχνευσης μεγίστου σημείου λειτουργίας ΦΒ συστοιχίας Είναι άκρως απαραίτητη η λειτουργία των πλαισίων στο σημείο λειτουργίας που εγγυάται την μέγιστη παραγωγή ισχύος, έτσι ώστε να κρίνεται συμφέρουσα μία επένδυση σε αυτά. Εδώ λοιπόν εξετάζονται αρκετές τέτοιες τεχνικές που υπάρχουν διαθέσιμες. 4ο Κεφάλαιο: Διακυμάνσεις τάσης που εισάγονται σε επίπεδο διανομής από ΦΒ συστήματα Τα ΦΒ στοιχεία μετατρέπουν την ηλιακή ενέργεια σε ηλεκτρική. Επομένως, είναι άμεσα εξαρτώμενη η παραγωγή τους από τις καιρικές συνθήκες. Στο παρόν κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται μέθοδοι πρόβλεψης τέτοιων διακυμάνσεων στην ηλιακή ενέργεια, και άρα στην παραγόμενη τάση. 5ο Κεφάλαιο: Συστήματα αποθήκευσης Κάθε σύστημα παραγωγής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας, για να θεωρείται ολοκληρωμένο, θα πρέπει να μπορεί να αποθηκεύει την περίσσεια ενέργειας που μπορεί να παρουσιάσει σε κάποιες χρονικές περιόδους, και να την αποδώσει όταν θα υπάρχει κάποια μεγάλη διακοπή παροχής ισχύος. Σε αυτό το κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται οι πιο γνωστές μέθοδοι αποθήκευσης. / During the last few years, under the pressure of the increased burden on the environment due to the use of fossil fuels and in fear of great climate changes which we all have already witnessed, the use of ecological and environmentally friendly energy solutions has already been widely discussed. Consequently ,billions have been spent and research has been conducted, in the development of new forms of renewable energy sources and in performance optimization of the existing ones. A widely used renewable energy source, which has been also develop in our country(under the fear of fines from the European Union and not because of the development of environmental conscience), is the technology of photovoltaic systems(PV). PV is a quite known to scientists and to research teams renewable energy source, which efforts have reduced the cost of PV in such levels, that an investment in those systems would be proved cost effective even for the owner of low capitals. The energy produced from a PV string is not directly exploited for use, since the produced dc voltage is not appropriate neither for distribution from the public electrical grid, nor for use from the loads,which operate under conditions of ac voltage.Consequently a photovoltaic string could be connected to the grid, only if it is equipped with appropriate devices, which allow the proper conversion and optimum control of energy. The purpose of this work is the reference of the main structures, for the operation and management of grid-integrated photovoltaic systems.In particular the paper can be summurised as follows: Chapter 1: Power-Electronic Structures for the Grid Integration of Photovoltaic Systems A general reference in the existing inverter technologies and a general categorisation of the latter is presented. Chapter 2: Re view of Single-Phase Grid-Connected Inverters for Photovoltaic Modules Single-plase inverter topologies are presented, categorized, compared and evaluated against different characteristics. Chapter 3: Comparison of Photovoltaic Array Maximum Power Point Tracking Techniques The functioning of photovoltaic arrays to the maximum power point is necessary, in order to be considered profitable an investment in photovoltaic systems. Many such techniques available, are being reviewed. Chapter 4: Voltage Fluctuations on Distribution Level Introduced by Phtovoltaic Systems Photovoltaic elements convert solar energy to electric, and consequently their electric generation is directly dependant on climatic conditions. The present analysis describes forecasting methods of fluctuations in solar irradiance which also results in fluctuations in the generated voltage. Chapter 5: Storage Systems Every electrical energy system, in order to be considered fully integrated, must store excessive energy produced during certain time periods, and support with it critical loads, during mains’ power interruption.This last chapter contains the most widespread storage techniques.

No description available.

Organic molecules based photovoltaic cells were fabricated in an open laboratory conditions without the use of glove box or clean room. Conducting polymers such as P3HT and PCBM were used as a photo-active layer of the devices. We found significant difference in the performance of the devices by employing two laboratory conditions of the polymer solutions. Enhanced current density has been observed from P3HT/PCBM bulkheterojunction solar cell after diluting a well sonicated polymers solution with fresh chloroform solvent. As the result of such current surge in the devices the efficiency rose to more than double compared to those devices without dilution of the P3HT/PCBM solution. An average power conversion efficiency of 4.5% was then recorded from the new preparation condition. This is an encouraging development toward achieving low cost organic photovoltaic devices. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--University of Toledo, 2008. / Typescript. "Submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Physics." Bibliography: leaves 124-132.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2008. / Committee Chair: Honsberg, Christiana; Committee Co-Chair: Citrin, David; Committee Member: Doolittle, Alan; Committee Member: First, Phillip; Committee Member: Ralph, Stephen; Committee Member: Rohatgi, Ajeet

Thesis (M.S.)--California Polytechnic State University, 2009. / Mode of access: Internet. Title from PDF title page; viewed on August 6, 2009. "Presented to the faculty of Architecture, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo." "In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree [of] Master of Science in Architecture." Major professor: Dr. Jens Pohl. "June 2009." Includes bibliographical references (p. 109-111).

Organic photovoltaic (OPV) is an exciting energy harvesting technique. Although its power conversion efficiency (PCE) now exceeds 10% in a research laboratory, the processing window of an OPV cell is still narrow. A fundamental understanding of the OPV materials is desired. This thesis presents the charge carrier transport properties and electronic interactions in the bulk heterojunction (BHJ) active layer of OPV cells. They were found to be well correlated with OPV device performances. Space-charge-limited current (SCLC) measurements and admittance spectroscopy (AS) were employed to study the charge transports, while photothermal deflection spectroscopy (PDS) was used to probe the trap densities inside the materials. Beneficial effects of a common solvent additive, 1,8-diiodooctance (DIO), on PTB7:PC71BM OPV cells have been investigated. With DIO present in the casting solution, the resulting BHJ films have much enhanced electron mobilities, whereas the impact on the hole mobility is negligible. The origin of increased electron mobility is the reduced average electron hopping distance for those films prepared with DIO solvent additive. A balance of hole-electron mobility by tuning the DIO concentration was demonstrated to be the way to optimize the OPV device performance. In light of carrier transport measurement results, a "polymer-rich" strategy with preserved device performance was demonstrated. After understanding the importance of balanced hole-electron mobility, the impact of donor-acceptor weight ratio on the performance of PTB7 : PC71BM based OPV cells was explored. Early stage electronic donor-acceptor interactions were revealed using ultra-low dosages of fullerenes. Before electron transport pathways percolate, the unconnected fullerene domains act as traps and hinder electron transport. From PDS, the trap density observed inside BHJ films was found to be anti-correlated with the fill factor of OPV devices. The origin of low FFs is mainly due to electron traps and localized states from fullerenes. Based on the observations, it is proposed that PC71BM tends to intercalate with PTB7 backbone instead of forming self-aggregates before the electron pathway percolation. Apart from investigating the fundamentals in OPV devices, a solution to improve its processing window was proposed in this thesis. Thermally stable polymer : fullerene OPV cells were fabricated by employing fluorenone-based solid additives. A charge transfer interaction between the additives and donor moiety of polymer formed a locked network which freezes the BHJ morphology under thermal stress. The most promising result retains 90% of the origin efficiency, upon thermal aging at 100 °C for more than 20 hours in PTB7:PC71BM solar cells. Besides fullerene-based OPV, all-polymer photovoltaic solar cells (all-PSCs) were also investigated. Two new difluorobenzene-naphthalene diimide based polymer electron acceptors, one random (P1) and one regioregular (P2) structure, were compared. P2 exhibited a much better molecular packing, a higher electron mobility and more balanced hole-electron mobilities in its composite film with polymer donor, PTB7-Th. An optimized PTB7-Th:P2 device can achieve a respectably high PCE over 5% for all-PSC devices. These all-PSCs should open a new avenue for next generation OPVs.

Thesis (MTech (Electrical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018. / Until recently, the focus of most solar technology development for space was towards more efficient, more radiation-resistant and increasingly powerful arrays. During a space mission, solar cells are not only exposed to irradiation by electrons, but also to a range of other particles, like protons. Thus, solar cells on robust nanosatellites are extremely exposed to an environment, which includes the high-energy electrons and protons of the earth’s radiation belts, which leads towards the degradation process of the individual solar cell. Solar cell radiation shielding design ensures the protection of the solar cells from the particular radiation environment found in space. While the design principles of a solar photovoltaic automatic switching fault tolerant system which can detect and bypass faulty photovoltaic cells will be presented through this research work. The ability of such a system to be reconfigured using implemented switching matrix system makes it efficient under various environments and faulty conditions. / National Research Foundation (NRF)