Σκοπός της παρούσης διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η μελέτη της απόδοσης και του κόστους μιας τυπικής αυτόνομης φωτοβολταϊκής εγκατάστασης σε γεωργική καλλιέργεια χρησιμοποιώντας φωτοβολταϊκά πλαίσια. Στα πλαίσια αυτά, πραγματοποιήθηκαν πειραματικές μετρήσεις, στο χώρο της ταράτσας του κτιρίου του τμήματος των Ηλεκτρολόγων Μηχανικών και Τεχνολογίας Υπολογιστών με φωτοβολταϊκά πλαίσια πολυκρυσταλλικού πυριτίου, μονοκρυσταλλικού πυριτίου και CIS για πέντε μήνες (Οκτώβριο 2009-Φεβρουάριο 2010) και στη συνέχεια πραγματοποιήθηκαν πειραματικές μετρήσεις με φωτοβολταϊκά πλαίσια πολυκρυσταλλικού πυριτίου για έξη μήνες (Μάρτιο 2010-Αύγουστο 2010), επειδή επιλέξαμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε αυτόν τον τύπο φωτοβολταϊκών πλαισίων. Οι μετρήσεις πραγματοποιούνταν μια φορά την εβδομάδα υπό διάφορες συνθήκες ακτινοβολίας και θερμοκρασίας και για κλίση 38o, με σκοπό να αποκτήσουμε μια ολοκληρωμένη εικόνα της ενεργειακής τους συμπεριφοράς. Ο προσανατολισμός των πλαισίων ήταν πάντα προς το Νότο, ώστε να έχουμε περισσότερες ώρες ηλιοφάνειας, διότι η Ελλάδα είναι χώρα του βόρειου ημισφαιρίου. Συμπεράσματα βγήκαν για την επίδραση της θερμοκρασίας υπό σταθερή ακτινοβολία και της ακτινοβολίας υπό σταθερή θερμοκρασία για τα τρία πλαίσια. Λεπτομερέστερα, έγινε επιλογή και μελετήθηκε η συμπεριφορά και η αποδιδόμενη ενέργεια του πλαισίου πολυκρυσταλλικού πυριτίου. Με τη βοήθεια του προγράμματος PV*Sol, κάναμε μια μοντελοποίηση του χρησιμοποιούμενου συστήματος για να συγκρίνουμε μ' αυτή τα πειραματικά μας αποτελέσματα. Προτείναμε μια φωτοβολταϊκή εγκατάσταση με πλαίσια πολυκρυσταλλικού πυριτίου για την άντληση νερού και άρδευση μιας γεωργικής έκτασης. Υπολογίσαμε το συνολικό κόστος της εγκατάστασης, αφού πρώτα δώσαμε λύσεις για μείωση του κόστους. Τέλος κάναμε μια απλή φωτοβολταϊκή εγκατάσταση για πρακτική εμπειρία, συνδέοντας το φωτοβολταϊκό πλαίσιο με ελεγκτή φόρτισης, μπαταρία και inverter / The objective of this diploma thesis is to calculate the efficiency and the cost of a typical photovoltaic installation in an agricultural cultivation using photovoltaic modules. Measurements of current and voltage have been realized on the roof of the building of the department of Electrical and Computer Engineering using a polycrystalline, a mono-crystalline and a CIS module during five months (October 2009-February 2010). Measurements of current and voltage have been also realized using a polycrystalline module during six months (March 2010-August 2010), as we have chosen to use this type of photovoltaic module. The measurements took place once a week and our goal was to obtain measurements under various conditions of radiation and temperature and at tilt angle of 38o so that we acquire enough knowledge on their energy behavior. The orientation of the module was always South, in order to gain more hours of sunlight, as Greece is a country of the northern hemisphere. Conclusions were extracted about the effect of temperature and solar radiation for the three modules. Moreover, it was selected and calculated the behavior and the energy yield of the polycrystalline module. By using the computer modeling system "PV*sol", we tried to simulate our photovoltaic system, in order to compare the measured results to the experimental. We proposed a photovoltaic installation using polycrystalline modules in order to pump water and irrigate an agricultural extent. We calculated the total cost of installation, after first we gave solutions for reduction of cost. Finally we made a simple photovoltaic installation for practical experience, connecting photovoltaic module with charge controller, battery and inverter.

Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία πραγματοποιείται μία τεχνικο-οικονομική μελέτη ενός διασυνδεδεμένου με το δίκτυο ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας της Δ.Ε.Η. φωτοβολταϊκού σταθμού παραγωγής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας, με ονομαστική εγκατεστημένη ισχύ αιχμής 100kWp. Ο συγκεκριμένος φ/β σταθμός μελετήθηκε για το γεωγραφικό πλάτος της Πάτρας. Στις μέρες μας, η ανάπτυξη φ/β πάρκων παραγωγής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας γνωρίζει μεγάλη άνθηση και το μέλλον σε αυτόν τον τομέα αναμένεται ακόμη πιο ευοίωνο, ειδικά για μία χώρα με τόσο πλούσιο ηλιακό δυναμικό όπως η Ελλάδα. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο γίνεται μία σύντομη αναφορά στην παγκόσμια, ευρωπαϊκή και ελληνική πραγματικότητα στον τομέα της παραγωγής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο γίνεται μία λεπτομερής ανάλυση του φωτοβολταϊκού φαινομένου και γενικότερα της φωτοβολταϊκής τεχνολογίας. Επίσης, αναλύονται τα ηλεκτρικά χαρακτηριστικά των φ/β στοιχείων και οι σημαντικότεροι παράγοντες που τα επηρεάζουν. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο γίνεται η περιγραφή και ανάλυση των επιμέρους στοιχείων που συνθέτουν ένα φωτοβολταϊκό σύστημα. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο εξηγούνται βασικές οικονομικές έννοιες και παρουσιάζονται τρόποι αξιολόγησης μίας επένδυσης. Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο πραγματοποιείται μία λεπτομερής τεχνική μελέτη του φ/β σταθμού παραγωγής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Η μελέτη αυτή αφορά το σύνολο του ηλεκτρομηχανολογικού εξοπλισμού που θα χρησιμοποιηθεί (φ/β πλαίσια, αντιστροφείς, καλωδιώσεις, συστήματα προστασίας, βάσεις στήριξης, γειώσεις, σύστημα αντικεραυνικής προστασίας, τοπογραφική διάταξη κλπ). Επίσης, υπολογίζεται η τελική απόδοση του φ/β πάρκου. Στο έκτο κεφάλαιο πραγματοποιείται η οικονομική μελέτη του συστήματος και ερευνάται η οικονομική βιωσιμότητα ενός τέτοιου έργου. Εξετάζονται τρεις διαφορετικές περιπτώσεις χρηματοδότησης και επιλέγεται η πιο συμφέρουσα οικονομικά. Στο έβδομο κεφάλαιο πραγματοποιείται μία μελέτη-προσομοίωση του φ/β συστήματος στον υπολογιστή, με τη βοήθεια του προγράμματος PSCAD. Αρχικά μελετάμε κάθε επιμέρους στοιχείο ενός φ/β συστήματος ξεχωριστά και στη συνέχεια τα συνθέτουμε όλα μαζί και μελετάμε το συνολικό σύστημα. Παρουσιάζεται η απόκριση του συστήματος σε κανονικές συνθήκες λειτουργίας, η επίδραση που έχουν οι μεταβολές της ακτινοβολίας και της θερμοκρασίας, μελετώνται οι αρμονικές και τέλος εξετάζεται η απόκριση του συστήματος σε απότομες μεταβολές της ακτινοβολίας (π.χ. σε παροδική συννεφιά). / The aim of the present thesis is the analysis of a grid connected photovoltaic system, which generates all its produced electrical power to the grid and has a nominal power of 100 kWp. In nowadays there is a significant rise in photovoltaic investments and the immediate future is expected to be more auspicious. In the first chapter, there is a brief presentation of the global, European and Greek situation in the section of electricity generation. In the second chapter, a detailed analysis of the photovoltaic technology is presented. There is a description of the materials and technologies used to manufacture solar cells. Moreover, the electrical properties of cells and modules are explained in detail and also the factors affecting their efficiency. In the third chapter, the main parts of a photovoltaic system are presented in detail. In the fourth chapter, there is a theoretical economic analysis. Specifically, basic economic terms are explained and tools for investment assessment are given. In the fifth chapter, there is a detailed technical study of a grid connected photovoltaic system. All the electrical and mechanical equipment is concerned (pv modules, inverters, wiring, groundings, electrical protection equipment etc). Moreover, the annually produced electrical energy is being estimated. In the sixth chapter, an economic study is presented and the economic sustainability of the investment is investigated. In the seventh chapter, we use the program PSCAD in order to simulate and analyse the photovoltaic system in the computer. Firstly we analyse each part of the photovoltaic system separately and afterwards we compose all these parts together and we analyse the whole system. The system’s response in normal operating conditions, the impact of changes in solar radiation and in cells’ temperature, the harmonics and lastly the system’s response in rapid change of solar irradiance, are all studied in this chapter.

Σκοπός της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η διαστασιολόγηση Φ/Β πάρκου ισχύος 500 kWp στο οποίο θα γίνει χρήση ιχνηλατών – trackers. Το συγκεκριμένο Φ/Β πάρκο μελετήθηκε για την περιοχή της Λάρισας. Η εξασφάλιση μεγάλου ποσοστού απαιτούμενης ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας μέσα από Ανανεώσιμες Πηγές, όπως είναι η φωτοβολταϊκή τεχνολογία, είναι μια σημαντική κατεύθυνση προς την προστασία του περιβάλλοντος. Παράλληλα αποτελεί μία σημαντική πρόκληση τόσο για τους μηχανικούς όσο και για την παγκόσμια οικονομία. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο δίνονται γενικά στοιχεία για τον Ήλιο και την ακτινοβολία που εκπέμπει, ενώ γίνεται και μια αναφορά στο πως μετράται η ηλιακή ακτινοβολία. Επίσης παρουσιάζεται η κατάσταση των εγκατεστημένων Φ/Β σε Ελλάδα και Ευρώπη. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο επεξηγείται η φωτοβολταϊκή ηλεκτρική ενέργεια και το φωτοβολταϊκό φαινόμενο. Επίσης γίνεται μαθηματική ανάλυση για το μοντέλο της διόδου των κυττάρου και του πλαισίου και τέλος δίνονται οι εξισώσεις που αποδίδουν τις παραμέτρους του μοντέλου. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο εξετάζονται τα χαρακτηριστικά των Φ/Β πλαισίων όπως είναι ο βαθμός απόδοσης τους. Επίσης περιγράφονται τα υλικά κατασκευής των πλαισίων, ενώ αναφέρονται παράγοντες οι οποίοι επηρεάζουν την απόδοση τους. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο περιγράφονται γενικά στοιχεία ενός Φ/Β πάρκου. Εξετάζεται το φαινόμενο της νησιδοποίησης και αναφέρονται στοιχεία για την αδειοδότηση του έργου. Επίσης περιγράφονται τεχνικά στοιχεία όπως η γείωση και οι μετατροπείς – inverters και εξηγείται τι είναι το ποσοστό απόδοσης της εγκατάστασης και ο ευρωπαϊκός βαθμός απόδοσης. Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο εξηγείται η λειτουργία του ιχνηλάτη – tracker και αναφέρονται τα πλεονεκτήματα χρήσης του σε σχέση με τα φ/β σε σταθερή βάση. Ακόμη περιγράφεται η περιστροφή γύρω από έναν άξονα και δύο άξονες. Τέλος γίνεται μία μαθηματική ανάλυση ως προς την γωνία πρόσπτωσης και του ποσού της λαμβάνουσας ηλιακής ακτινοβολίας. Τέλος στο έκτο κεφάλαιο γίνεται η διαστασιολόγηση του Φ/β πάρκου. Στο συγκεκριμένο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται η χωροθέτηση των ιχνηλατών στο οικόπεδο και η ενεργειακή μελέτη η οποία έγινε μέσω του προγράμματος PVSYST 5.56. Επίσης γίνεται τεχνική ανάλυση ως προς τους μετατροπείς, τη σύνδεση με το δίκτυο τις καλωδιώσεις και την αντικεραυνική προστασία και τελικά γίνεται η οικονομοτεχνική μελέτη της ανάλυσης. / The purpose of the present thesis is the design – dimensioning of a photovoltaic park with nominal power 500 kWp. In the specific park, they are going to be used sun trackers and it is located near Larisa – Greece. The aim of replacing a great percent of conventional energy sources with renewable is significant for the environment's protection, but also it is a great challenge for the engineers and the global economy. In the first chapter, there is a brief presentation of solar energy and radiation and how can be calculated. Furthermore, the pv market potential in Greece and in Europe is described. In the second chapter is explained how the pv generator works and what is photovoltaic phenomenon. Also there is a mathematical analysis about the model of pv diode. In the third chapter, there is a presentation of pv module characteristics such as performance ratio. Also, the materials that pv modules are usually made of and factors that affect their performance are mentioned. In the fourth chapter, there is a description of the general data of a pv park such as inverters, grounding. Moreover, the phenomenon of islanding is explained. In the fifth chapter, there is an explanation of how a solar tracker works. Also, the advantages of using solar tracker in comparison with fixed tilt systems are presented. Finally, in the sixth chapter , the design and dimensioning of the pv park is presented and it is shown how the trackers are located in the field. Furthermore, the PVSYT 5.56 is used to simulate the energy yield of the pv park and a technical analysis is presented which includes the pv modules, the trackers, the transformer that are used and other critical data. In the end there is an economic analysis which shows the estimated profit of the specific investment.

Η παρούσα εργασία πραγματοποιήθηκε στο πλαίσιο πρακτικής εργασίας σε εταιρία εγκατάστασης αυτόνομων και διασυνδεμένων φωτοβολταϊκών και αιολικών συστημάτων παραγωγής ισχύος την περίοδο Ιούλιος-Οκτώβριος 2011. Αποτελεί μία πραγματική τεχνική μελέτη ενός φωτοβολταϊκού σταθμού παραγωγής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας διασυνδεμένου στο δίκτυο, ισχύος 100 kWp. Η εγκατάσταση του συγκεκριμένου σταθμού και πραγματοποιήθηκε από την εταιρία σε χωράφι στην περιοχή της Ανδραβίδας. Οι τιμές, ο εξοπλισμός, το τοπογραφικό διάγραμμα και οι φωτογραφίες που περιέχονται στην μελέτη αποτελούν πραγματικά στοιχεία και το τελικό αποτέλεσμα της εγκατάστασης είναι αυτό που παραδόθηκε στον πελάτη. Επίσης οι φωτογραφίες, οι μετρήσεις και οι καμπύλες στο τέλος της εργασίας αποτελούν πραγματικά στοιχεία που πάρθηκαν από την εγκατάσταση με σκοπό τον έλεγχο της σωστής λειτουργίας της. Στο Κεφάλαιο 1 γίνεται μία σύντομη αναφορά στην ηλιακή ενέργεια, στα πλεονεκτήματα της φωτοβολταϊκής τεχνολογίας και στους λόγους για τους οποίους η χρήση των φωτοβολταϊκών συστημάτων καθιερώνεται ολοένα και περισσότερο στην παραγωγής ενέργειας. Στο Κεφάλαιο 2 παρουσιάζεται το φωτοβολταϊκό φαινόμενο και τα βασικά στοιχεία για ένα ηλιακό κύτταρο όπως είναι το ισοδύναμο κύκλωμά του, η χαρακτηριστική του καμπύλη Ι-V, τα ηλεκτρικά του μεγέθη και το αποτέλεσμα σύνδεσης πολλών κυττάρων. Στο Κεφάλαιο 3 περιγράφεται το φαινόμενο hot spot, οι επιπτώσεις που αυτό μπορεί να έχει σε ένα φωτοβολταϊκό πλαίσιο και πώς αυτό αντιμετωπίζεται. Στο Κεφάλαιο 4 περιγράφεται η δομή και η λειτουργία που έχει κάθε φωτοβολταϊκός μετατροπέας και παρουσιάζονται οι πιο κοινές τοπολογίες μετατροπέων χωρίς μετασχηματιστή που χρησιμοποιούνται στα φωτοβολταϊκά συστήματα. Στο Κεφάλαιο 5 περιγράφεται το φαινόμενο της νησιδοποίησης σε ένα διασυνδεμένο φωτοβολταϊκό σύστημα, εξηγείται για ποιους λόγους είναι ανεπιθύμητο και παρουσιάζονται οι τρόποι ανίχνευσης και αποτροπής του. Στο Κεφάλαιο 6 περιγράφεται πλήρως όλη η διαδικασία της μελέτης της εγκατάστασης. Γίνεται μελέτη σκίασης, διαστασιολόγηση των φωτοβολταϊκών συστοιχιών και επιλογή του κατάλληλου εξοπλισμού για κάθε τμήμα της εγκατάστασης. Στο Κεφάλαιο 7 γίνεται η μελέτη για την κατασκευή της αντικεραυνικής προστασίας της εγκατάστασης. Με βάση τις αντίστοιχες παραμέτρους, επιλέγεται ο τρόπος που θα κατασκευαστεί το σύστημα προστασίας από τυχόν κεραυνικά πλήγματα. Τέλος στο Παράρτημα φαίνονται πραγματικές φωτογραφίες που έχουν τραβηχτεί με θερμοκάμερα και κάποιες ενδεικτικές μετρήσεις που έγιναν ώστε να ελεγχθεί ότι το σύστημα λειτουργεί σωστά με τη μέγιστη απόδοση. / The present state was made as part of practical exercise at a company that installs autonomous and grid connected photovoltaic and wind power generating systems in the period of July-October 2011. It is a real technical study of a photovoltaic generating power station connected to the grid, with nominal power 100 kWp. The installation of this station was made from the company at field in the area of Andravida. The values, the equipment, the topographic diagram and the photos that this project contains are real elements and the final result of the installation is what was given to the client. Moreover all the photos, the measurements and curves at the end of the project are also real and were taken from the station in order to verify that everything works correctly. In Chapter 1 is made a short reference to solar energy, to the advantages of photovoltaic technology and to the reasons that the use of photovoltaic systems is being more and more introduced in power generation. In Chapter 2 are presented the photovoltaic phenomenon and the basic elements of a solar cell such as its equivalent circuit, its characteristic I-V curve, its electric quantities and the result of many cells connection. In Chapter 3 is described the phenomenon of hot spot, the possible impact that it can have on a photovoltaic module and how it can be faced. In Chapter 4 is described the structure and function that every photovoltaic inverter has and are presented the most common transformerless topologies of the inverters that are used in photovoltaic systems. In Chapter 5 is explained what an islanding condition is at a grid connected photovoltaic system and why it is unwanted and are presented the methods of detection and prevention of such a condition. In Chapter 6 is described the complete procedure of the study of the system installation. Study for shade and photovoltaic arrays dimensioning are made and the appropriate equipment is chosen for every part of the system. In Chapter 7 is made the study for the construction of the installation’s lighting protection system. According to the corresponding parameters, is chosen the way that the protection system from any lighting blow will be constructed. Finally in Appendix are shown real photos that have been taken with thermal camera and some indicative measurements that were made to verify that the system works correctly with maximum efficiency.

M.Ing. (Electrical Engineering Science) / One of the challenges of modern technology is remote control in real-time. Wireless technologies are used to control solar systems connected or not connected to the grid. Nevertheless wireless communications present some defects when they are facing basements of buildings and thick walls. To overcome that weakness, wire technologies seem to be the solution. The use of power line communications (PLC) technology presents a financial advantage, given the fact that PLC uses power wire to transmit data. PLC did an interesting leap forward in the last few years, and this drives researchers to carry out research in that field of Electrical Engineering. The advantages offered by PLC cannot be over-emphasized, but neither should the inherent problems affecting its commercial take-off be underestimated. This work creates a background study for experimental measurement and eventual implementations on PLC. A 2FSK modulation was implemented at CENELEC B standards, and the carrier signal was sent through a low wattage solar microinverter. The inverter was built in compliance with the IEEE 1547 standard. Two different coupling circuits were also built as well as the transceiver. The entire system was fed by a 250 W- 18 V monocrystalline solar panel. This investigation presents many options to integrate a communication system in a solar system. The case study has shown that a message sent through an H-bridge inverter is related to many parameters such as the modulation scheme, the coding techniques, the type of control and the DC link voltage. The result presents a very weak probability, which implies that the other options should be investigated.

As part of the SUNRISE project (Semiconductors Using Nanostructures for Record Increases in Solar-cell Efficiency), high efficiency, III-V semiconductor, quantum-dot-enhanced, triple-junction solar cells designed and manufactured by Cyrium Technologies Inc. were integrated into OPEL Solar, MK-I, Fresnel-lens-based, 550x concentrating modules carried on a dual axis tracker. Over its first year of operation 1.8 MWh of AC electrical energy was exported to the grid. Measurements of the direct and indirect components of the insolation, as well as the spectral irradiance of light incident on the demonstrator in Ottawa, Canada are presented. The system efficiency is measured and compared to that predicted by a system model to identify loss mechanisms so that they can be minimized in future deployments.

Os inversores utilizados no sistema fotovoltaico conectados à rede (SFCR) devem apresentar uma forma de onda senoidal nos seus terminais de saída. Monitoram regularmente a qualidade de energia da rede elétrica aos quais estão conectados, de maneira a só gerarem energia se a rede estiver com tensão. Dependendo do inversor, da potência que ele está desenvolvendo em relação à sua potência nominal, da rede ao qual está conectado e das características da carga que ele alimentará, podem ser apresentadas distorções na rede de energia em relação à forma de onda senoidal pura, tanto a nível de tensão como a nível de corrente elétrica. Não é incomum os dispositivos que são conectados a redes apresentarem-se como geradores de harmônicos, principalmente os eletrônicos. Estas distorções, conhecidas na literatura como distorções harmônicas, afetam o desempenho dos inversores quando ligados a redes elétricas. Nestas redes, como pode haver distorções significativas. Os parâmetros elétricos que os inversores se baseiam para obter as características da rede a qual estão conectados,devido a estas distorções, podem fazer com que os mesmos se desconectem. O inversor também se desconectará automaticamente da rede ao perceber a ocorrência de variação acentuada da rede ou a falta dela; a esse sistema, dá-se a denominação antiilhamento. Portanto, é de bastante importância que se consiga reproduzir teoricamente o comportamento das cargas e das redes elétricas, nas quais os inversores serão conectados para que seja possível estudá-los quando interligados às diferentes cargas. Entretanto, devido ao inversor ser também um equipamento eletrônico baseado em fonte chaveada para “remontar” a onda senoidal, o mesmo também acaba introduzindo uma deformação tanto na tensão como na corrente da rede elétrica ao qual está conectado, e esta deformação é também significativa em SFCR de grande porte (instalação de geração fotovoltaica com grande número de inversores). Assim, este trabalho visa implementar a modelagem de cargas não lineares (degradadoras da qualidade de energia) para serem aplicadas em simulações de inversores de SFCR, com aplicação especial no parâmetro “cargas” do programa para computadores FVCONECT desenvolvido pelo Laboratório de Energia Solar da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. / It is known that the inverters used in photovoltaic systems connected to mains power (SFCR), when connected to the power grid, should provide a sinusoidal waveform at its output terminals. The photovoltaic systems inverters regularly monitor the power grid quality they are connected to, so they generate power only if the grid of the Concessionaire or external power grid presents voltage. Depending on the inverter, on the power that it develops over the same rated power, on the power grid it is connected to and on the characteristics of the load that it also feeds, it is possible to occur certain distortions on the power grid compared to pure sine waveform, in terms of voltage or even in terms of electric current. The devices connected to grid commonly present themselves as harmonic generators. The loads cause large distortions in the power grid causing disorders occur both voltage and current in a distribution line or power circuit. These distortions, commented in the literature as harmonic distortions, greatly affect the inverters performance when connected to power grids. On these grids, as it is possible to identify significant distortions, the parameters for pairing the power grid, in which the inverters are based, can turn them into disconnection. The inverter automatically disconnects from the grid if for some reason the grid stops powering the power grid - such system is called anti-islanding. Therefore, it is important to theoretically reproduce the behavior of power grids which the inverters are connected to, in order to study them. However, due to the fact that the inverter is also a switched source-based electronic equipment to "reassemble" the sine wave, it provides a deformation not only on the voltage but also on the power grid current which it is connected to, being this deformation also significant in large SFCR (photovoltaic generation facility with large numbers of inverters). In this sense, the present work aims to implement the modeling of nonlinear loads (which can degrade the power quality) in SFCR inverters simulations, based on the special application of loads parameters from the FVCONECT software, developed by the Solar Energy Laboratory, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul.

Os inversores utilizados no sistema fotovoltaico conectados à rede (SFCR) devem apresentar uma forma de onda senoidal nos seus terminais de saída. Monitoram regularmente a qualidade de energia da rede elétrica aos quais estão conectados, de maneira a só gerarem energia se a rede estiver com tensão. Dependendo do inversor, da potência que ele está desenvolvendo em relação à sua potência nominal, da rede ao qual está conectado e das características da carga que ele alimentará, podem ser apresentadas distorções na rede de energia em relação à forma de onda senoidal pura, tanto a nível de tensão como a nível de corrente elétrica. Não é incomum os dispositivos que são conectados a redes apresentarem-se como geradores de harmônicos, principalmente os eletrônicos. Estas distorções, conhecidas na literatura como distorções harmônicas, afetam o desempenho dos inversores quando ligados a redes elétricas. Nestas redes, como pode haver distorções significativas. Os parâmetros elétricos que os inversores se baseiam para obter as características da rede a qual estão conectados,devido a estas distorções, podem fazer com que os mesmos se desconectem. O inversor também se desconectará automaticamente da rede ao perceber a ocorrência de variação acentuada da rede ou a falta dela; a esse sistema, dá-se a denominação antiilhamento. Portanto, é de bastante importância que se consiga reproduzir teoricamente o comportamento das cargas e das redes elétricas, nas quais os inversores serão conectados para que seja possível estudá-los quando interligados às diferentes cargas. Entretanto, devido ao inversor ser também um equipamento eletrônico baseado em fonte chaveada para “remontar” a onda senoidal, o mesmo também acaba introduzindo uma deformação tanto na tensão como na corrente da rede elétrica ao qual está conectado, e esta deformação é também significativa em SFCR de grande porte (instalação de geração fotovoltaica com grande número de inversores). Assim, este trabalho visa implementar a modelagem de cargas não lineares (degradadoras da qualidade de energia) para serem aplicadas em simulações de inversores de SFCR, com aplicação especial no parâmetro “cargas” do programa para computadores FVCONECT desenvolvido pelo Laboratório de Energia Solar da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. / It is known that the inverters used in photovoltaic systems connected to mains power (SFCR), when connected to the power grid, should provide a sinusoidal waveform at its output terminals. The photovoltaic systems inverters regularly monitor the power grid quality they are connected to, so they generate power only if the grid of the Concessionaire or external power grid presents voltage. Depending on the inverter, on the power that it develops over the same rated power, on the power grid it is connected to and on the characteristics of the load that it also feeds, it is possible to occur certain distortions on the power grid compared to pure sine waveform, in terms of voltage or even in terms of electric current. The devices connected to grid commonly present themselves as harmonic generators. The loads cause large distortions in the power grid causing disorders occur both voltage and current in a distribution line or power circuit. These distortions, commented in the literature as harmonic distortions, greatly affect the inverters performance when connected to power grids. On these grids, as it is possible to identify significant distortions, the parameters for pairing the power grid, in which the inverters are based, can turn them into disconnection. The inverter automatically disconnects from the grid if for some reason the grid stops powering the power grid - such system is called anti-islanding. Therefore, it is important to theoretically reproduce the behavior of power grids which the inverters are connected to, in order to study them. However, due to the fact that the inverter is also a switched source-based electronic equipment to "reassemble" the sine wave, it provides a deformation not only on the voltage but also on the power grid current which it is connected to, being this deformation also significant in large SFCR (photovoltaic generation facility with large numbers of inverters). In this sense, the present work aims to implement the modeling of nonlinear loads (which can degrade the power quality) in SFCR inverters simulations, based on the special application of loads parameters from the FVCONECT software, developed by the Solar Energy Laboratory, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul.

Os inversores utilizados no sistema fotovoltaico conectados à rede (SFCR) devem apresentar uma forma de onda senoidal nos seus terminais de saída. Monitoram regularmente a qualidade de energia da rede elétrica aos quais estão conectados, de maneira a só gerarem energia se a rede estiver com tensão. Dependendo do inversor, da potência que ele está desenvolvendo em relação à sua potência nominal, da rede ao qual está conectado e das características da carga que ele alimentará, podem ser apresentadas distorções na rede de energia em relação à forma de onda senoidal pura, tanto a nível de tensão como a nível de corrente elétrica. Não é incomum os dispositivos que são conectados a redes apresentarem-se como geradores de harmônicos, principalmente os eletrônicos. Estas distorções, conhecidas na literatura como distorções harmônicas, afetam o desempenho dos inversores quando ligados a redes elétricas. Nestas redes, como pode haver distorções significativas. Os parâmetros elétricos que os inversores se baseiam para obter as características da rede a qual estão conectados,devido a estas distorções, podem fazer com que os mesmos se desconectem. O inversor também se desconectará automaticamente da rede ao perceber a ocorrência de variação acentuada da rede ou a falta dela; a esse sistema, dá-se a denominação antiilhamento. Portanto, é de bastante importância que se consiga reproduzir teoricamente o comportamento das cargas e das redes elétricas, nas quais os inversores serão conectados para que seja possível estudá-los quando interligados às diferentes cargas. Entretanto, devido ao inversor ser também um equipamento eletrônico baseado em fonte chaveada para “remontar” a onda senoidal, o mesmo também acaba introduzindo uma deformação tanto na tensão como na corrente da rede elétrica ao qual está conectado, e esta deformação é também significativa em SFCR de grande porte (instalação de geração fotovoltaica com grande número de inversores). Assim, este trabalho visa implementar a modelagem de cargas não lineares (degradadoras da qualidade de energia) para serem aplicadas em simulações de inversores de SFCR, com aplicação especial no parâmetro “cargas” do programa para computadores FVCONECT desenvolvido pelo Laboratório de Energia Solar da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. / It is known that the inverters used in photovoltaic systems connected to mains power (SFCR), when connected to the power grid, should provide a sinusoidal waveform at its output terminals. The photovoltaic systems inverters regularly monitor the power grid quality they are connected to, so they generate power only if the grid of the Concessionaire or external power grid presents voltage. Depending on the inverter, on the power that it develops over the same rated power, on the power grid it is connected to and on the characteristics of the load that it also feeds, it is possible to occur certain distortions on the power grid compared to pure sine waveform, in terms of voltage or even in terms of electric current. The devices connected to grid commonly present themselves as harmonic generators. The loads cause large distortions in the power grid causing disorders occur both voltage and current in a distribution line or power circuit. These distortions, commented in the literature as harmonic distortions, greatly affect the inverters performance when connected to power grids. On these grids, as it is possible to identify significant distortions, the parameters for pairing the power grid, in which the inverters are based, can turn them into disconnection. The inverter automatically disconnects from the grid if for some reason the grid stops powering the power grid - such system is called anti-islanding. Therefore, it is important to theoretically reproduce the behavior of power grids which the inverters are connected to, in order to study them. However, due to the fact that the inverter is also a switched source-based electronic equipment to "reassemble" the sine wave, it provides a deformation not only on the voltage but also on the power grid current which it is connected to, being this deformation also significant in large SFCR (photovoltaic generation facility with large numbers of inverters). In this sense, the present work aims to implement the modeling of nonlinear loads (which can degrade the power quality) in SFCR inverters simulations, based on the special application of loads parameters from the FVCONECT software, developed by the Solar Energy Laboratory, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul.

Submitted by Maicon Juliano Schmidt (maicons) on 2015-05-28T18:41:13Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Carlos Henrique Rôssa.pdf: 936314 bytes, checksum: df5b76514570a833590e8b2cb9176ba5 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-28T18:41:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Carlos Henrique Rôssa.pdf: 936314 bytes, checksum: df5b76514570a833590e8b2cb9176ba5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-01-31 / FAPERGS - Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul / O presente trabalho tem por objetivo estimar a produção de energia elétrica em sistemas fotovoltaicos conectados à rede elétrica (SFCR) a partir da modelagem da radiação solar disponível, tendo como local de análise e estudo a região de Porto Alegre - RS. Dois modelos de céu claro, o Modelo de Hottel e Modelo de ESRA, além do Ano Meteorológico Típico (AMT) para Porto Alegre, foram utilizados no estudo. O Modelo de Hottel foi usado como modelo independente para a verificação da influência entre utilizar a temperatura do ar para dias ensolarados ou a temperatura do ano meteorológico típico (AMT) para todas as simulações. Os dados de irradiância na horizontal foram obtidos a partir do modelo de céu claro de ESRA e do AMT. Para a obtenção da irradiância em superfícies inclinadas, utilizou-se o Modelo de Perez. Os resultados obtidos de produção anual de energia elétrica a partir do AMT e da irradiância horizontal calculada pelo Modelo de ESRA foram comparados e verificou-se grande diferença, chegando o Modelo de ESRA a superestimar a energia produzida em até 27,5%. Essa diferença, como esperado, cai quando se compara somente a energia gerada nos dias completamente ensolarados, chegando a 6,5 % a mais para o Modelo de ESRA, o que sugere que o modelo pode ser empregado com certa confiabilidade em locais com potencial para construção de usinas solares. Para as simulações com o Modelo de ESRA, foi necessário estimar, através do método de Karayel et al. (1984), os coeficientes de turbidez de Linke TL?s para Porto Alegre ? RS. Foram utilizados valores médios mensais nas simulações. Sendo o Modelo de ESRA pouco eficaz na substituição do AMT nas estimativas de produção de energia para Porto Alegre, utilizou-se o AMT para as simulações de produção de energia em SFCR com as tecnologias implementadas. Foram utilizados os módulos BP 585 Sunpower, para células de silício monocristalino, e módulos AP-BP 85 Alps Technology, para células de silício multicristalino. As simulações comparam a produção de energia para as inclinações de 20° e 30°, e verificam que o ângulo de 20° é o mais favorável à produção de energia na região. Além disso, entre esses dois módulos utilizados, o de silício monocristalino apresentou maiores valores de energia produzida em ambas as inclinações. / The present work aims to estimate the production of electric energy in grid-connected photovoltaic systems parting from the available radiation, having as analysis and study site the region of Porto Alegre – RS. Two clear sky model, Hottel Model, ESRA Model, beyond the Typical Meteorological Year (TMY) to Porto Alegre, RS, was used at the work. Hottel Model was used as an independent model for verification of the influence between using the air temperature of sunny days or of Typical Meteorological Year (TMY) for all the simulations. The horizontal irradiance data were obtained from the ESRA clear sky model and the TMY. To obtained the irradiance on sloped surface, we used the Perez Model. The comparisons on a typical sunny day in the TMY showed good coincidence in the obtained values. When comparing the energy production for the whole year, big difference was verified among the results obtained by ESRA Model in relation to the ones obtained by TMY, having the ESRA Model arrived to the extent of overestimating the energy produced in up to 27,5%. This difference, as expected, decays when only the energy generated on completely sunny days is compared, reaching up to 6,5 % more to ESRA Model, which suggests that the model may be employed with certain reliability in places with potential for construction of solar power plants. For the simulations with ESRA Model, it was necessary to estimate Linke TL’s turbidity coefficients for Porto Alegre-RS through the Karayel et al.(1984) method. Average monthly values were used in the simulations. Being ESRA Model, in the current configuration, little effective in the substitution of TMY in Porto Alegre, TMY for simulations of energy production in GCPV was used with the implemented technologies. Modules BP 585 Sunpower were used for monocrystalline silicon cells, and modules AP-BP 85 Alps Technology for polycrystalline silicon cells. The simulations compare the energy production for 20° and 30° inclinations, and verify that the 20° angle is the most favorable to energy production in the region. Furthermore, between these two modules employed, the monocrystalline silicon one presented higher values of produced energy in both inclinations.