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The research reported in this doctoral thesis involves constructing physiochemical models that reproduce the transport behaviour of aqueous chemical species present in environments relevant to the oil and gas industry to gain an improved insight into the local electrochemistry near the electroactive surface (uniform corrosion) or inside the pit (pitting corrosion). The first part of the project involved constructing physiochemical models with one dimensional geometry with aqueous chemical species and chemical and electrochemical processes observed in oxygen (O2) containing brine environments to determine the changes in the local electrolyte composition and the potential within an initiated pit for a variety of external physical and chemical conditions. It was determined that the bottom of the pit suffers greatly from the effects of iR drop (Ohmic drop) if the pit geometry is taken to be macroscopic. The model was extended to include additional aqueous chemical species in conjunction with the chemical and electrochemical processes observed in carbon dioxide (CO2) rich environment to investigate the effects of CO2 on the local electrolyte chemistry at the bottom of the pit. It was found that the proton reduction electrochemical process on its own was incapable of supplying the high currents experimentally measured in CO2 environments via the buffering effect. The second part of the project was to investigate the influence of different experimental conditions on the polarisation behaviour of near static carbon steels in CO2 saturated brine electrolyte via multiple electrochemical measurement techniques. The key observation from this study was the presence of two distinct mass transport limited regions on the cathodic polarisation curve at natural pH (3.775). From the physiochemical model fitted to the experimental cathodic curve, the first mass transport limited region, occurring at lower cathodic potentials, was identified to be the direct reduction of carbonic acid while the second wave, occurring at slightly higher cathodic potentials, was shown to be the direct reduction of aqueous carbon dioxide. Based on the polarisation scans under forced convection, the rate of the direct reduction of carbon dioxide was determined to be under neither potential nor mass transport control. The third part of the project involved extending the existing one dimensional models to include the precipitation of salt films (iron chloride – FeCl2(s) and iron carbonate – FeCO3(s)) in O2 and CO2 saturated brine electrolyte respectively along with the capability to track their respective thickness. Furthermore, the ability of the underlying metal to undergo a change in its state from active to passive is implemented in the model via a set of rules based on the Pourbaix diagram. It was determined that the precipitation of salt films is greatly influenced by the mass transport with no or minimal thickness observed under even natural convection conditions. Furthermore the successful precipitation of salt film was determined to be a precursor step to the metal attaining passivation.

Amyloid fibrils results from a type of ordered polypeptide aggregation that is associated with ailments such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Annually, millions of people in the United States alone develop and die from AD. Therefore, it is necessary to understand not only the process of amyloid formation, but also the causes of this specific type of aggregation. This study used ABeta(25-35) since it is a fragment of the Alzheimer?s peptide that behaves like the full length peptide found in patients with AD. To study the process of amyloid formation, several methods were used so that a more complete picture of the stepped aggregation process could be realized. Several oligomeric species were detected and described many of which could not have been observed without using the complete battery of methods utilized here. The oligomeric species detected included a novel 'rolled sheet' that appeared to be the immediate precursor of amyloid fibrils, and two supermolecular species that appear after amyloid fibrils were formed. In determining the causes of amyloid formation, two significant discoveries were made. First, by partial sequence randomization, truncation, and Ala scanning mutagenesis, the critical amyloidogenic region of ABeta(25-35) was found to be residues 30-35. This critical core region is important because it is thought to be the region that initiates amyloid formation, therefore knowing the residues involved in the region is a useful tool for developing methods of fibril formation prevention. Second, by inserting all naturally occurring amino acids into position 34 of ABeta(25-35), three distinct classes of variants were observed and the effect of several physiochemical properties on amyloidosis were examined. Hydrophobicity, solubility, and ?-strand propensity were found to affect aggregation to the greatest extent. Also within these two studies, our results suggest that early oligomers are the cytotoxic species as opposed to amyloid fibrils or other larger macromolecular assemblies.

This research work characterises diesel engine soot physiochemical properties and engine performance and emissions for the combustion of two common mineral diesel fuels (low and medium sulphur) and a RME B100 biodiesel fuel at two geometric compression ratios (19.5:1 and 16.5:1) and a broad range of EGR (10 to 55%) for an otherwise unmodified VW 1.9TDI 130PS engine. The principal focus of the research is the physiochemical characterisation of soot sampled from the engine exhaust manifold and also a DPF in the exhaust and exploring how the fuel type, compression ratio and EGR influence the soot properties and how these properties then influence the evolution of the soot in the exhaust.

The dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important grain legume that is used for human consumption worldwide. In Africa and other parts of the World, legume diets contribute tremendously to protein and energy requirements of consumers. Dry beans provide about 16- 33% protein, dietary fibre (between 14 and 19%), starch, minerals and vitamins. Dry beans have a long storage life and can be cooked as whole grains, fried or dehulled and splitted for production of dhal and salads. There is a tremendous variability in the dry bean varieties. It is believed that consumer preferences for dry beans are influenced by factors such as seed size, seed colour, cooking time and flavour. Although, substantial research has been done on physicochemical properties, description of sensory properties that differentiate bean varieties specifically in terms of liked or disliked flavours was lacking. Sensory evaluation is one of the methods used for evaluating product quality and it can be used to describe the sensory properties of a product (i.e. descriptive sensory evaluation) and determines its acceptability by consumers (i.e. consumer acceptability or preferences). Physicochemical properties and descriptive sensory evaluation of six dry bean varieties (Jenny, Kranskop, PAN 148, AC Calmont, PAN 150 and Mkuzi) from Mpumalanga (MP) and Free State (FS) locations of South Africa were determined. Significant (p<0.05) variety, location as well as location x variety interaction effects were found for both physicochemical and sensory properties of beans. Of the six bean varieties, Jenny (FS), Mkuzi and PAN 148 (MP) beans had relatively long cooking times (>60 min) using a Mattson Bean Cooker. PAN 150 beans from both locations were described as bitter, soapy and metallic with a raw bean flavour. Mkuzi beans were mostly described as having a soapy mouthfeel. Jenny (MP), Kranskop (MP&FS) were sweet, soft and with a cooked bean flavour. Consumer sensory evaluation revealed that beans with sweet, soft and cooked bean flavours were the most preferred. Beans that took long to cook and those that were described as bitter, soapy and metallic in the mouth, received low consumer ratings on a 9-point hedonic scale. The total polyphenol content of PAN 150 (MP), along with Jenny and AC Calmont from MP was determined to find out whether the bitterness was associated with its polyphenol concentration. PAN 150 beans had the lowest concentration of total polyphenols compared to the two other varieties, suggesting that factors other than total polyphenol content caused the bitterness of these beans. A follow up investigation of mineral profiles in whole bean flour of all six bean varieties from the two locations was done to find out whether differences in mineral content e.g. iron (Fe) contributed to bitterness and metallic mouthfeel of certain beans. Results showed significant (p< 0.05) variety differences for phosphorous (P) and significant (p< 0.05) location differences for magnesium (Mn) only. Fe and copper (Cu) contents did not contribute to bitterness or metallic mouthfeel of PAN 150 beans. For maximum consumer acceptability, farmers should concentrate on the production of beans that have characteristics similar to Kranskop (MP&FS), PAN 148 (FS) and Jenny (MP) beans. As bean hardening was suspected in Jenny (FS), PAN 148 (MP) and Mkuzi (MP), the importance of storing beans at proper temperatures (e.g. less than 35ºC) and relative humidity (e.g. < 75 %) should be emphasized to minimize the development of the hard-to-cook defect over long storage periods. / Dissertation (MSc(Agric))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Food Science / unrestricted

Submitted by (lucia.rodrigues@ufrpe.br) on 2017-03-27T13:09:48Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Rinaldo Malaquias Lima Filho.pdf: 461439 bytes, checksum: e026aba19b9815cd933e784e24d7b203 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-03-27T13:09:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rinaldo Malaquias Lima Filho.pdf: 461439 bytes, checksum: e026aba19b9815cd933e784e24d7b203 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-03-03 / Vários fungos causam doenças no maracujá-amarelo na fase de pós-colheita, principalmente Colletotrichum gloeosporioides que provoca lesões nas frutas, prejudicando a comercialização. Entre os métodos alternativos de controle de doenças pós-colheita a indução de resistência sistêmica com elicitores bióticos e abióticos é uma alternativa promissora, da mesma forma que a utilização do 1-metilciclopropeno (1-MCP) para a manutenção da qualidade do fruto e prevenção contra a antracnose. Este trabalho teve por objetivo verificar os efeitos dos indutores de resistência Agro-Mos (AGM), acibenzolar-S-metil (ASM) e Ecolife (ECL) em maracujá-amarelo contra a antracnose. Foram testados tempos de imersão de 5, 10, 15 e 20 min, assim como as dosagens de 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 μL.L-1 para AGM e ECL, e de 0, 10, 30, 50, 80, 100 mg i.a.L-1 para ASM. Foi avaliado a incidência, severidade, atividade das PR–proteínas (β-1,3-glucanase, peroxidase, polifenoloxidase) e fatores físico-químicos(acidez total titulável (ATT), sólidos solúveis totais (SST) e pH) nas frutas tratadas. O índice de crescimento micelial e esporulação de Colletotrichum gloeosporioides foi determinado em placas de Petri contendo meio BDA e indutores de resistência nas dosagens supra citadas. Com a finalidade de verificar o efeito do 1-MCP sobre o desenvolvimento da antracnose e fatores físico-químicos, frutas sadias foram submetidas às concentrações de 0, 150, 300, 450 e 600 nL.L-1 durante 12 h, inoculadas com o patógeno e armazenadas durante sete dias à 25 ± 2 ºC. O delineamento foi inteiramente casualizado com quatro repetições e a unidade experimental foi composta por uma bandeja contendo 10 frutas. O tempo de imersão não influenciaram a incidência e severidade da antracnose. Os tratamentos AGM e ECL nas dosagens 50 e 100 μL.L-1 reduziram a incidência da antracnose para 85%, mas não influenciou a severidade dadoença. AGM, ASM e ECL foram eficientes na ativação das PR-proteínas causando acúmulo nas frutas tratadas. A maior atividade da β-1,3 glucanase foi detectada em ECL (100 μL.L-1), enquanto as enzimas peroxidase e polifenoloxidase apresentaram maior atividade em AGM (100 μL.L-1). As atividades enzimáticas descreveram perfil semelhante com expressivo acúmulo em torno das menores dosagens dos indutores, decrescendo, em seguida até o último nível testado. Os tratamentos AGM, ASM e ECL não causaram alteração nos teores de SST e pH, porém, AGM e ASM apresentaram redução significativa nos teores de ATT. No estudo do efeito do 1-MCP o crescimento micelial e esporulação foram influenciados diretamente pelos tratamentos com AGM e ECL. O tamanho das lesões foi inversamente proporcional às dosagens testadas, sendo menores com o aumento da concentração do produto. As maiores lesões ocorreram na testemunha (0 nL.L-1) 1,42 cm e a menor 0,77 cm nas frutas submetidas a maior concentração (600 nL.L-1). O desenvolvimento da doença foi menor nos tratamentos comas doses de 300, 450 e 600 nL.L-1. Não houve alteração no pH, no entanto, verificou-se aumento significativo de SST e ATT na polpa do maracujá tratados com 1-MCP quando comparados com a testemunha. / Vários fungos causam doenças no maracujá-amarelo na fase de pós-colheita, principalmente Colletotrichum gloeosporioides que provoca lesões nas frutas, prejudicando a comercialização. Entre os métodos alternativos de controle de doenças pós-colheita a indução de resistência sistêmica com elicitores bióticos e abióticos é uma alternativa promissora, da mesma forma que a utilização do 1-metilciclopropeno (1-MCP) para a manutenção da qualidade do fruto e prevenção contra a antracnose. Este trabalho teve por objetivo verificar os efeitos dos indutores de resistência Agro-Mos (AGM), acibenzolar-S-metil (ASM) e Ecolife (ECL) em maracujá-amarelo contra a antracnose. Foram testados tempos de imersão de 5, 10, 15 e 20 min, assim como as dosagens de 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 μL.L-1 para AGM e ECL, e de 0, 10, 30, 50, 80, 100 mg i.a.L-1 para ASM. Foi avaliado a incidência, severidade, atividade das PR–proteínas (β-1,3-glucanase, peroxidase, polifenoloxidase) e fatores físico-químicos(acidez total titulável (ATT), sólidos solúveis totais (SST) e pH) nas frutas tratadas. O índice de crescimento micelial e esporulação de Colletotrichum gloeosporioides foi determinado em placas de Petri contendo meio BDA e indutores de resistência nas dosagens supra citadas. Com a finalidade de verificar o efeito do 1-MCP sobre o desenvolvimento da antracnose e fatores físico-químicos, frutas sadias foram submetidas às concentrações de 0, 150, 300, 450 e 600 nL.L-1 durante 12 h, inoculadas com o patógeno e armazenadas durante sete dias à 25 ± 2 ºC. O delineamento foi inteiramente casualizado com quatro repetições e a unidade experimental foi composta por uma bandeja contendo 10 frutas. O tempo de imersão não influenciaram a incidência e severidade da antracnose. Os tratamentos AGM e ECL nas dosagens 50 e 100 μL.L-1 reduziram a incidência da antracnose para 85%, mas não influenciou a severidade dadoença. AGM, ASM e ECL foram eficientes na ativação das PR-proteínas causando acúmulo nas frutas tratadas. A maior atividade da β-1,3 glucanase foi detectada em ECL (100 μL.L-1), enquanto as enzimas peroxidase e polifenoloxidase apresentaram maior atividade em AGM (100 μL.L-1). As atividades enzimáticas descreveram perfil semelhante com expressivo acúmulo em torno das menores dosagens dos indutores, decrescendo, em seguida até o último nível testado. Os tratamentos AGM, ASM e ECL não causaram alteração nos teores de SST e pH, porém, AGM e ASM apresentaram redução significativa nos teores de ATT. No estudo do efeito do 1-MCP o crescimento micelial e esporulação foram influenciados diretamente pelos tratamentos com AGM e ECL. O tamanho das lesões foi inversamente proporcional às dosagens testadas, sendo menores com o aumento da concentração do produto. As maiores lesões ocorreram na testemunha (0 nL.L-1) 1,42 cm e a menor 0,77 cm nas frutas submetidas a maior concentração (600 nL.L-1). O desenvolvimento da doença foi menor nos tratamentos comas doses de 300, 450 e 600 nL.L-1. Não houve alteração no pH, no entanto, verificou-se aumento significativo de SST e ATT na polpa do maracujá tratados com 1-MCP quando comparados com a testemunha.

Le traitement des sols à la chaux est une technique ancienne et efficace dans les travaux de génie civil. Dans l'objectif du « zéro emprunt/zéro déchet » dans les travaux de terrassement routier, cette étude démontre que quelles que soient la plasticité et la médiocrité des propriétés hydromécaniques des sols argileux, le traitement à la chaux s'avère efficace. Les résultats expérimentaux concernant un sol argileux extrêmement plastique et gonflant montrent que les propriétés géotechniques s'améliorent avec le traitement à la chaux : le gonflement est éliminé, la plasticité réduite fortement et la résistance mécanique augmentée. Le suivi du processus physico-chimique de la réaction chaux–argile a permis de déterminer les quantités de chaux nécessaires aux changements instantanés ou/et durables du comportement hydromécanique des sols argileux traités. L'échange cationique poursuivi par la réaction pouzzolanique induisent dans les sols traités des modifications minéralogiques, texturales et structurales. Des hydrates calciques nouveaux sont formés grâce à la consommation de la chaux et des argiles. Ces hydrates tapissent les bords des particules argileuses et constituent une couche qui enrobent et assurent le lien entre les particules. Ces changements sont ainsi à l'origine des améliorations des propriétés géotechniques des sols traités. Les travaux de recherche réalisés démontrent que le processus et la cinétique des réactions chaux– argile dépendent du cation échangeable, de la quantité de chaux disponible, de la température de maturation et de la structure de l'argile : smectite, illite ou kaolinite. / Lime treatment techniques have largely been developed across the word mainly in civil engineering works. The context of sustainable development implies to improve the rate of reuse of clay soils in the earthworks. This study demonstrates that whatever the plasticity and poor hydromechanical properties of clay soils, the lime treatment is effective. Experimental results on highly plastic clay soil show that all geotechnical properties progress with the lime treatment: the swelling is eliminated, the plasticity is reduced greatly and the strength increases. Monitoring the physicochemical lime-clay reaction allowe to determine the quantities of lime required for short term and/or long term changes in the hydromechanical behaviour of treated clay soils. The cation exchange pursued by the pozzolanic reactions induced mineralogical, textural and structural changes in the treated soil. New hydrates are formed through the consumption of lime and clay. These hydrates contour the edges of clay particles and formed a layer which coat and provide the link between particles. These changes are well behind improvements in geotechnical properties of treated soil. The research conducted in this thesis shows that the process and the kinetics of lime-clay reactions depend on the exchangeable cation, the amount of lime available, to the curing temperature and the structure of the clay smectite, illite and kaolinite.

The purpose of this Bachelor thesis was to establish a method for determining the chemical oxygen demand (COD) fractionation in wastewater from cruise liners. COD fractions of interest were soluble biodegradable (SS), particulate biodegradable (XS), soluble unbiodegradable (SI) and particulate unbiodegradable (XI). Three types of wastewater (gray water, black water and permeate) were analysed and a method with a physiochemical approach was established. The method was originally elaborated by Jun Wu et al in the study “Wastewater COD biodegradability fractionated by simple physical–chemical analysis” (2014) Chemical Engineering Journal[ES1] [JB2]  258, p 450-459. The method was also used for comparison reasons of the COD fractionation in permeate before and after advanced treatment with nanofiltration and ozonation. Total COD in permeate was almost half of the initial value after nanofiltration and XI was eliminated. After ozonation no significant difference was observed neither in total COD concentration or fractionation pattern. The conclusion is that this method to determine the COD fractions has potential but it needs further optimization in form of adjusting the methods matrix specifically based on wastewater from cruise liners. / NAUTEK

Due to the successful commercialization of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), there is a growing interest in developing new battery materials with beneficial electrochemical properties. However, the uneven distribution of lithium resources and the low abundance of lithium in the earth crust are the main obstacles for further development and large-scale production of LIBs. Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), an alternative that can partly meet the energy storage challenges, are getting attentions of researchers due to the wide availability and lower cost of sodium resources. Nevertheless, the conventional liquid electrolytes of either LIBs or SIBs composed of fluorinated salts dissolved in volatile organic solvents, posing serious safety issues due to the instability of the salts and flammability of the solvents. There is an urge to develop new fluorine-free electrolytes with improved physicochemical and electrochemical properties. In this context, the conventional fluorinated salts should be replaced with fluorine-free salts and the flammable solvents should be substituted with non-flammable solvents. There are a number of strategies to develop high-performant electrolytes including ambient-temperature ionic liquids (ILs), organic ionic plastic crystals (OIPCs) and highly concentrated electrolytes (HCEs) utilizing new salts and solvents. In this thesis, novel phosphorus-based ionic materials and electrolytes are introduced and their properties are thoroughly investigated. In the first part (Paper I), fluorine-free NaDEEP salt and TEOP solvent are employed to make “solvent-in-salt” (SIS) sodium electrolytes, also known as HCEs. Unexpectedly, the addition of TEOP solvent lead to an increase in the oxidation stability of the SIS electrolytes. In addition, an unusual ionic conductivity behavior is found – the ionic conductivities of Na electrolytes increase with increasing salt concentration. The “salt-rich” and “solvent-rich” phases formed within the electrolytes are investigated using multinuclear liquid-state NMR spectroscopy and NMR diffusometry. In the second part (Paper II), a series of orthoborate-based ionic materials, specifically OIPCs, containing phosphonium/ammonium cations are prepared to compare with the popular fluorine-free, bis(oxalato)borate (BOB) salts. The tetrabutyl phosphonium bis(glycolato)borate ([P4444][BGB]) OIPC displays much higher decomposition temperature than the structural analogous [P4444][BOB] IL. The crystal structures of LiBGB and NaBGB salts are resolved using single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Unlike LiBOB, the BGB-based salts revealed excellent moisture stability over an extended time of up to 8-weeks air exposure. Multinuclear solid-state NMR spectroscopy indicates weaker cation-anion interactions in phosphonium-based salts than the ammonium-based ones. Finally, in the third part (Paper III), two-component and three-component eutectic electrolytes, composed of pyrrolidinium saccharin (PySc), lithium saccharin (LiSc) and/or [P4444][BGB] salt. The resulting mixtures showed significantly lower melting temperatures than the neat salts. The physicochemical and thermal properties of these salts are thoroughly investigated and discussed.

<p>Multiple studies have demonstrated atmospheric cold plasma (ACP) as an effective non-thermal technology for microbial decontamination, surface modification, and functionality alteration in food processing and packaging. ACP constitutes charged particles, such as positive and negative ions, electrons, quanta of electromagnetic radiation, and excited and non-excited molecules, which corresponds to its predominant reactive properties. However, in many of these applications, the interactions between plasma and the components in food matrix are not well-understood. The <b>overall goals</b> of this dissertation were to 1) evaluate the interactions between high voltage atmospheric cold plasma (HVACP) and microbes in liquid and semi-solid food; 2) investigate plasma transfer into semi-solid foods and determine the relationship between microbial inactivation and plasma transfer; 3) explore the interactions between plasma and proteins. </p> <p>The first study explored the microbial (<i>Salmonella</i> <i>enterica</i> serovar Typhimurium, <i>S</i>. <i>enterica</i>) inactivation efficacy of HVACP. The physicochemical interactions between HVACP and biomolecules, including an enzyme (pectin methylesterase, PME), vitamin C and other components in orange juice (OJ) under different conditions was also evaluated. Both direct and indirect HVACP treatment of 25 mL OJ induced greater than a 5 log reduction in <i>S</i>. <i>enterica</i> following 30 s of treatment with air and MA65 gas with no storage. For 50 mL OJ, 120 s of direct HVACP treatment followed by 24 h storage achieved <i>S</i>. <i>enterica</i> reductions of 2.9 log in air and 4.7 log in MA65 gas. An indirect HVACP treatment of 120 s followed by 24 hours storage resulted in a 2.2 log reduction in air and a 3.8 log reduction in MA65. No significant (<i>P </i>< 0.05) Brix or pH change occurred following 120 s HVACP treatment. HVACP direct treatment reduced vitamin C content by 56% in air and PME activity by 74% in air and 82% in MA65. These results demonstrated that HVACP can significantly reduce <i>Salmonella</i> in OJ with minimal quality degradation.</p> <p>The second study in this dissertation examined the penetration process of plasma into semi-solid food and the resulting microbial inactivation efficacy. Agar gels of various densities (0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2%) with a pH indicator were inoculated with <i>S</i>. <i>enterica</i> (10⁷>CFU) and exposed directly (between the electrode) or indirectly (adjacent to the plasma field created between the two electrodes) to 90 kV at 60 Hz for up to 1.5 h. A long treatment time (1.5 h) caused sample temperature to increase 5~10 °C. The microbial analysis indicated a greater than 6 log₁₀ (CFU) reduction (both with air and MA65) in the zone with a pH change. Inactivation of bioluminescence cells in the plasma penetrated zone confirmed that the plasma, and its generated reactive species, inactivate microbial as it penetrates into the gel. A two-minute HVACP direct treatment with air at 90 kV induced greater than 5 log₁₀ (CFU)<i> S</i>. <i>enterica </i>reduction in applesauce. <em></em></p> <p>The third study investigated the interactions between HVACP and protein, using bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a model protein. The physicochemical and structural alteration of BSA and its reaction mechanism, when subjected to HVACP, were investigated. After treating 10 mL of BSA solution (50 mg/mL) at 90 kV for 20, 40, or 60 min, we characterized structural alteration and side-group modification. FTIR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and circular dichroism analysis indicated protein unfolding and decreased secondary structure (25 % loss of α-helix, 12% loss of β-sheet) in HVACP treated BSA. Average particle size in the protein solutions increased from 10 nm to 113 µm, with a broader distribution after 60 min HVACP treatment indicating protein aggregation. SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometer analysis observed a formation of new peptides of 1 to 10 kDa, indicating that the plasma triggered peptide bond cleavage. Chemical analysis and mass spectrometer results confirmed the plasma modifications on the side chains of amino acids. This study reveals that HVACP treatment may effectively introduce structural alteration, protein aggregation, peptide cleavage, and side-group modification to proteins in aqueous conditions, through several physicochemical interactions between plasma reactive species (reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species) and the proteins. This finding can be readily applied to other plasma-protein studies or applications in the food system, such as enzyme inactivation or protein-based film modifications.</p>