Proefschrift--Leiden. / Stellingen laid in at end. 1 p. Bibliography: p. 58-59.

No description available.

La classification actuelle de la famille des Phytoseiidae n'est pas basée sur de réelles études phylogénétiques et par conséquent, de nombreuses questions se posent sur la validité des taxa supra-spécifiques mais également vis-à-vis des taxa spécifiques. Ce travail de thèse avait donc pour objectif de répondre à de telles questions pour deux genres : Phytoseiulus et Neoseiulella, en utilisant pour la première fois des approches phylogénétiques moléculaires et morphologiques. Ces études phylogénétiques ont été également associées à des études biogéographiques. Les résultats obtenus par ces deux approches sont congruents et semblent montrer que ces deux genres ne sont pas monophylétiques : le genre Phytoseiulus semble au mieux paraphylétique, tandis que le genre Neoseiulella serait polyphylétique. Ces résultats sont différents de ceux développés dans les diverses révisions successives de ces deux taxa. Ce travail de thèse a permis de répondre également à des questionnements sur cinq synonymies au sein du genre Neoseiulella. L'étude de pratiquement tous les types des espèces du genre Neoseiulella nous a permis de redéfinir le genre, en excluant trois espèces et en discutant certaines synonymies. Une clé d'identification des adultes femelles des espèces valides a également été proposée. Des études complémentaires, notamment des analyses moléculaires, seront nécessaires afin de conclure plus définitivement sur les relations évolutives entre les taxa étudiés / The present classification of the family Phytoseiidae is not based on solid phylogenetic studies and therefore, many taxonomic questions still arise, concerning the validity of supra-specific and specific taxa identified to-date. This thesis thus aimed to answer such questions for two genera, Phytoseiulus and Neoseiulella, using for the first time molecular and morphological phylogenetic analyses. Biogeographic analyses have been also carried out. Results obtained by both morphological and molecular approaches are congruent and seem to show that both genera are not monophyletic: Phytoseiulus seems paraphyletic whereas Neoseiulella seems polyphyletic. These results are different from those obtained with previous revisions of these two taxa. Furthermore, this study allowed to conclude on five synonymies within the genus Neoseiulella. The observation of nearly the totality of the species belonging to the genus Neoseiulella permitted to redefine this genus, excluding three species and discussing some synonymies. Lastly, an identification key of the adult females was proposed for the valid species of the genus Neoseiulella. Further experiments, including molecular investigations, are however still required in order to obtain more reliable conclusions on the evolutionary relationships of the studied taxa.

Ainda é pequena a disponibilidade de agentes de controle biológico no Brasil. Isso se deve em parte à dificuldade de produção destes, o que frequentemente inviabiliza seu uso. Os ácaros da família Phytoseiidae estão entre os predadores mais utilizados como agentes de controle biológico de ácaros e de pequenos insetos pragas. Atualmente, a criação daqueles agentes é feita principalmente sobre plantas infestadas com presas naturais. Este tipo de criação, apesar de eficiente, demanda grandes áreas, o que aumenta o custo de produção. Para facilitar a produção, alimentos alternativos têm sido avaliados. O objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar alimentos alternativos para a produção massal dos fitoseídeos Amblyseius tamatavensis Blommers, Euseius concordis (Chant) e Neoseiulus anonymus (Chant e Baker). Inicialmente realizou-se um teste de oviposição com 15 espécies de ácaros Astigmatina, cinco tipos de pólen e uma espécie de nematoide. Amblyseius tamatavensis foi o único que apresentou níveis satisfatórios de oviposição quando alimentado com ácaros Astigmatina, atingindo 2,6 ovos/fêmea/dia quando alimentado com Thyreophagus n. sp. e 2,1 ovos/fêmea/dia quando alimentado com Aleuroglyphus ovatus (Troupeau, 1879). Dentre os tipos de pólen, o de Ricinus communis L. proporcionou os maiores níveis de oviposição, sendo de 1,7 e 1,2 ovos/fêmea/dia para E. concordis e A. tamatavensis, respectivamente. Neoseiulus anonymus não apresentou níveis satisfatórios de oviposição para nenhum dos tipos de pólen avaliados. Em relação ao nematoide (Protohabditis sp.) apenas A. tamatavensis apresentou nível de oviposição satisfatória, sendo este de 1,2 ovos/fêmea/dia. Com base nestes resultados, optou-se por elaborar uma tabela de vida de fertilidade apenas para A. tamatavensis alimentado com as duas espécies de Astigmatina citados anteriormente. Assim como no teste de oviposição, o melhor desempenho foi obtido com A. tamatavensis alimentado com Thyreophagus n. sp., obtendo níveis satisfatórios de rm (0,19), T (12,8), Ro (11,47) e λ (1,2). Considerando-se os resultados promissores obtidos, iniciou-se um teste preliminar de criação massal de A. tamatavensis utilizando o método descrito por Freire e Moraes (2007). Em uma criação com população inicial de 200 ácaros, o número de predadores aumentou em média 34 vezes após 30 dias. Este resultado mostrou que A. tamatavensis tem grande potencial para ser criado de forma massal com o uso de Thyreophagus n. sp. / The availability of biological control agents in Brazil is still low. This is due in part to the difficulties found in the production of those organisms, which often hampers their use. Phytoseiidae is a family of predatory mites commonly used as biological control agents of mite and small insect pests. Currently, these agents are mainly reared on infested plants with their natural prey. This type of rearing, although efficient, requires large areas, which increases production cost. To facilitate production, alternative food sources have been used. The aim of this study was to determine alternative food for mass production of the phytoseiids Amblyseius tamatavensis Blommers, Euseius concordis (Chant) and Neoseiulus anonymus (Chant and Baker). Initially, an oviposition test was conducted with 15 mite species of the cohort Astigmatina, five types of pollen and one species of bacteriophagous nematode. Amblyseius tamatavensis was the only one that presented satisfactory levels of oviposition when fed with astigmatins, reaching 2.6 eggs/female/day when fed with Thyreophagus n. sp. and 2.1 eggs/female/day when fed with Aleuroglyphus ovatus (Troupeau, 1879). Among the types of pollen, Ricinus communis L. induced the highest levels of oviposition, reaching 1.7 to 1.2 eggs/female/day for E. concordis and A. tamatavensis, respectively. Neoseiulus anonymus did not have satisfactory levels of oviposition on any type of pollen. Regarding the nematode (Protohabditis sp.), only A. tamatavensis had satisfactory level of oviposition on this prey (1.2 eggs/female/day). Based on these results, fertility life tables were constructed only for A. tamatavensis fed with Thyreophagus n. sp. and with A. ovatus. As in the oviposition test, the best performance was obtained with Thyreophagus n. sp., on which the following life table parameters were obtained: rm (0.19), T (12.8), Ro (11.47) and λ (1.2). Considering these promising results, a preliminary test for the mass rearing of A. tamatavensis was initiated using the method described by Freire and Moraes (2007). When 200 predators were initially introduced to each rearing unit, the number of predators increased 34 times within 30 days. This result indicated that A. tamatavensis may be mass produced with the use of Thyreophagus n. sp. as prey.

Ainda é pequena a disponibilidade de agentes de controle biológico no Brasil. Isso se deve em parte à dificuldade de produção destes, o que frequentemente inviabiliza seu uso. Os ácaros da família Phytoseiidae estão entre os predadores mais utilizados como agentes de controle biológico de ácaros e de pequenos insetos pragas. Atualmente, a criação daqueles agentes é feita principalmente sobre plantas infestadas com presas naturais. Este tipo de criação, apesar de eficiente, demanda grandes áreas, o que aumenta o custo de produção. Para facilitar a produção, alimentos alternativos têm sido avaliados. O objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar alimentos alternativos para a produção massal dos fitoseídeos Amblyseius tamatavensis Blommers, Euseius concordis (Chant) e Neoseiulus anonymus (Chant e Baker). Inicialmente realizou-se um teste de oviposição com 15 espécies de ácaros Astigmatina, cinco tipos de pólen e uma espécie de nematoide. Amblyseius tamatavensis foi o único que apresentou níveis satisfatórios de oviposição quando alimentado com ácaros Astigmatina, atingindo 2,6 ovos/fêmea/dia quando alimentado com Thyreophagus n. sp. e 2,1 ovos/fêmea/dia quando alimentado com Aleuroglyphus ovatus (Troupeau, 1879). Dentre os tipos de pólen, o de Ricinus communis L. proporcionou os maiores níveis de oviposição, sendo de 1,7 e 1,2 ovos/fêmea/dia para E. concordis e A. tamatavensis, respectivamente. Neoseiulus anonymus não apresentou níveis satisfatórios de oviposição para nenhum dos tipos de pólen avaliados. Em relação ao nematoide (Protohabditis sp.) apenas A. tamatavensis apresentou nível de oviposição satisfatória, sendo este de 1,2 ovos/fêmea/dia. Com base nestes resultados, optou-se por elaborar uma tabela de vida de fertilidade apenas para A. tamatavensis alimentado com as duas espécies de Astigmatina citados anteriormente. Assim como no teste de oviposição, o melhor desempenho foi obtido com A. tamatavensis alimentado com Thyreophagus n. sp., obtendo níveis satisfatórios de rm (0,19), T (12,8), Ro (11,47) e λ (1,2). Considerando-se os resultados promissores obtidos, iniciou-se um teste preliminar de criação massal de A. tamatavensis utilizando o método descrito por Freire e Moraes (2007). Em uma criação com população inicial de 200 ácaros, o número de predadores aumentou em média 34 vezes após 30 dias. Este resultado mostrou que A. tamatavensis tem grande potencial para ser criado de forma massal com o uso de Thyreophagus n. sp. / The availability of biological control agents in Brazil is still low. This is due in part to the difficulties found in the production of those organisms, which often hampers their use. Phytoseiidae is a family of predatory mites commonly used as biological control agents of mite and small insect pests. Currently, these agents are mainly reared on infested plants with their natural prey. This type of rearing, although efficient, requires large areas, which increases production cost. To facilitate production, alternative food sources have been used. The aim of this study was to determine alternative food for mass production of the phytoseiids Amblyseius tamatavensis Blommers, Euseius concordis (Chant) and Neoseiulus anonymus (Chant and Baker). Initially, an oviposition test was conducted with 15 mite species of the cohort Astigmatina, five types of pollen and one species of bacteriophagous nematode. Amblyseius tamatavensis was the only one that presented satisfactory levels of oviposition when fed with astigmatins, reaching 2.6 eggs/female/day when fed with Thyreophagus n. sp. and 2.1 eggs/female/day when fed with Aleuroglyphus ovatus (Troupeau, 1879). Among the types of pollen, Ricinus communis L. induced the highest levels of oviposition, reaching 1.7 to 1.2 eggs/female/day for E. concordis and A. tamatavensis, respectively. Neoseiulus anonymus did not have satisfactory levels of oviposition on any type of pollen. Regarding the nematode (Protohabditis sp.), only A. tamatavensis had satisfactory level of oviposition on this prey (1.2 eggs/female/day). Based on these results, fertility life tables were constructed only for A. tamatavensis fed with Thyreophagus n. sp. and with A. ovatus. As in the oviposition test, the best performance was obtained with Thyreophagus n. sp., on which the following life table parameters were obtained: rm (0.19), T (12.8), Ro (11.47) and λ (1.2). Considering these promising results, a preliminary test for the mass rearing of A. tamatavensis was initiated using the method described by Freire and Moraes (2007). When 200 predators were initially introduced to each rearing unit, the number of predators increased 34 times within 30 days. This result indicated that A. tamatavensis may be mass produced with the use of Thyreophagus n. sp. as prey.

Specialist and generalist phytoseiid mites are widely used for biological control of spider mites. Understanding dispersal attributes of these mites is important to implementing more stable, cost-efficient integrated pest management. In this regard, we studied dispersal of phytoseiid mites from a local ambulatory phase of movement within a prey patch to a longer-range phase that includes emigration (aerial take-off and dispersal distance) and immigration to a new plant. Specialist phytoseiids showed higher ambulatory and aerial dispersal than generalist species. Somewhat different dispersal strategies were seen between Neoseiulus fallacis (more specialized predator) and N. calfornicus (more generalized predator): The most important difference was earlier and continuous dispersal of N. californicus from a prey patch. Cues from spider mite infestation suppressed the dispersal rates for specialists, but either increased or did not change the dispersal rates for generalist phytoseiids. Aerodynamic calculations support the hypothesis that Phytoseiulus persimilis may not require a standing take-off behavior to become airborne. However, with less vertical profile, a mite may become airborne more by standing erect (N. fallacis), than a species that does not show standing take-off (N. calfornicus). Jumping behavior by P. persimilis was observed for the first time among Phytoseiidae. Falling speed ranged from 0.4 to 0.73 m/s for 13 phytoseiid species and 0.79 to 0.81 for two-spotted spider mite. These values were quite similar to theoretical estimates for specialist phytoseiids, but less for generalists. From falling speed estimates and other morphological data, it was possible to predict aerial dispersal distance of phytoseiids using analytical models. After landing on bare soil following aerial dispersal, high mortality of N. fallacis was observed in the field during summer. Distance from the landing point to target plants showed negative log linear relationships. Soil surfaces and management actions influenced survival and recovery. Environmental conditions greatly affected survival of the predator. We speculated that phytoseiids that fell on ground were moving to the target plants via both ambulatory and aerial means. / Graduation date: 2001

Genetics, gene flow, and distribution of pesticide resistance traits were examined for organophosphate (OP) resistance in three beneficial phytoseiid mites. Levels and genetics of OP resistance in Amblyseius andersoni were examined first. Laboratory strains from Italy and Oregon, USA, were compared in susceptibility to insecticides used in western Oregon fruit crops. The Italian strain was 80-100 times more resistant to the OPs azinphosmethyl, diazinon, malathion, and phosalone, as well as carbaryl, a carbamate. Significant differences were not found between strains for endosulfan or fenvalerate. Using backcross analysis, response of F1 hybrids to azinphosmethyl indicated OP resistance was semidominant. Through novel statistical analysis, backcross of F1 to parent strains revealed resistance was polygenic, with at least two loci. Reciprocal crosses demonstrated the presence of maternal effects, with increased variation associated with progeny of Oregon females. In the next set of experiments, electrophoresis of allozymes was used to estimate gene flow for Typhlodromus pyri. Ten populations from two apple growing valleys of Oregon were compared. Subpopulations were collected from in and around commercial apple orchards. Four loci unaffected by pesticide use were examined. FST was calculated at 0.115, and Nm as 2.08. No allelic patterns could be discerned for populations among or within valleys; however, more variation was present for mite populations within valleys than between them. Some inbreeding was found within populations. While from dispersal studies one would conclude T. pyri is nondispersive, allozymic analysis indicates there is moderate gene flow. Factors affecting OP resistance distribution in T. pyri and Metaseiulus occidentalis were examined. A diagnostic concentration of azinphosmethyl was used to determine OP resistance frequencies for populations of each species, collected in and near commercial apple orchards in two valleys. OP resistance in T. pyri populations was localized: mites from 10 m or more outside orchards were OP susceptible, while those within orchards were resistant. This indicated limited gene flow. All M. occidentalis populations were resistant, indicating a regional resistance pattern and high gene flow. Factors which were not significant in the distribution of OP resistance were: valley, degree of orchard isolation, host plant, and seasonality. / Graduation date: 1994

From January to July, 1967, a study of dispersion and distribution characteristics of Typhlodromus mcgregori Chant, Bryobia praetiosa Koch, and Bryobia rubrioculus (Scheuten) was made in an abandoned apple orchard in Highland, American Fork, Utah and in the laboratory at Provo, Utah. Bryobia praetiosa overwintered on the spurs and the other protected sites and with the advent of spring migrated out of the tree and back onto the cover crop. Coinciding with the movement of B. praetiosa out of the tree was the hatching of winter eggs and maturation of B. rubrioculus primarily on the spurs but as far down the trunk as ground level. By the middle of June, B. rubrioculus completely replaced B. praetiosa on the spurs and leaves. The effectiveness of T. mcgregori as a control agent upon B. praetiosa and B. rubrioculus is limited because of the differences in their distribution during their active stages.

La famille des Phytoseiidae comprend des espèces d'intérêt agronomique dont certaines sont utilisées pour lutter contre des acariens ravageurs appartenant principalement aux familles des Tetranychidae et Eriophyidae. L'identification et la description des espèces de Phytoseiidae sont essentiellement basées sur des caractères morphologiques. Cependant, plusieurs problèmes d'identification sont rencontrés du fait : (1) de leur petite taille (faible nombre de caractères observables), (2) du manque de recul sur la valeur diagnostique de certains caractères dits discriminants, (3) et enfin du diagnostic fiable uniquement au stade femelle. Dans ce contexte, ce travail de thèse a pour objectif de déterminer dans quelle mesure l'approche moléculaire peut assister le diagnostic traditionnel. Pour cela, nous avons étudié l'étendue des variations intra- et interspécifiques (moléculaires et morphologiques) de sept espèces de Phytoseiidae d'intérêt agronomique, ceci pour comparer la capacité discriminante de quatre marqueurs moléculaires (12S ARNr, Cytb, COI et ITS). Dans ce travail, nous mettons en évidence l'utilité de ces marqueurs pour le diagnostic de tous les stades de développement et montrons l'importance de la forme du calyx de la spermathèque pour différencier deux espèces du genre Euseius, ce qui nous a permis de décrire une nouvelle espèce. Nous montrons également que les marqueurs mitochondriaux et nucléaires peuvent différencier des espèces morphologiquement proches. Cependant, il faut rester prudent quand aux conclusions tirées (espèces différentes ou populations différentes au sein d'une même espèce) sur la base des résultats obtenus avec les marqueurs mitochondriaux. Enfin, nous montrons que les règles de décision (valeurs seuils) sont difficiles à (1) établir avec ces mêmes marqueurs et (2) surtout à généraliser pour la différenciation des espèces appartenant aux deux sous-familles étudiées. Pour conclure, ce travail met en évidence de façon claire la nécessité d'une approche taxonomique intégrative, incluant un va-et-vient entre données moléculaires, morphologiques et écologiques, pour la garantie d'un diagnostic fiable des espèces de Phytoseiidae. / The family Phytoseiidae includes numerous species of huge interest for biological control of mite pests, essentially belonging to the families Tetranychidae and Eriophyidae. Identification and description of Phytoseiidae species are mainly based on morphological characters. However, taxonomists have to face several problems for species diagnostic because of : (1) their small size (low number of visible characters), (2) little information on the diagnostic value of some characters considered as discriminant, and at last (3) diagnostic only reliable at female stage. In this context, the present works aims to determine how molecular approaches can assist traditionnal diagnostic. For this, we studied the intra- and interspecific variations (morphological and molecular) of seven agronomic important species, in order to compare the ability of four molecular markers (12S rRNA, Cytb mtDNA, COI mtDNA et ITS) to discriminate between species. We first show that molecular markers could be of great help for differentiating species at all life stages. Moreover, we show the importance of the spermatheca calyx shape for separating two species of the genus Euseius, and a new specie was then described. We also emphasize that both mitochondrial and nuclear markers differentiate morphological close species. However, some cautions have to be paid on the conclusions developped (different species or different populations within a same species) when only mitochondrial markers are used. At last, we underline that decision rules (treshold cutt-off values) are difficult (1) to establish with these latter markers and also (2) to generalise for the accurate differentiation of the Phytoseiidae species belonging to the two sub-families considered. To conclude, this work clearly emphasizes the importance of integrative taxonomy, including an « up-and-down » analysis of molecular, morphological and ecological data, to secure the specific diagnostic among the family Phytoseiidae

O Estado do Amazonas é o segundo maior produtor de laranja da Região Norte e apresenta capacidade para expansão da cultura. Entretanto, a oferta de frutos ainda é insuficiente e cerca de 60% dos citros consumidos no Amazonas vem de outras regiões. A importação de frutos de outras regiões facilita a entrada de novas pragas e patógenos. No entanto, a leprose, causada por um vírus transmitido pelo ácaro Brevipalpus yothersi Baker, ainda não tem sido citada como um problema para o estado. A pequena quantidade do ácaro da leprose e a presença de ácaros predadores no pomar podem ser a explicação para isto. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar os níveis de ocorrência do ácaro da leprose e outros ácaros associados a este na região de Manaus, e o possível efeito de pólen de plantas comumente encontradas em pomares cítricos desta região na manutenção dos predadores fitoseídeos sobre esta cultura. Dos 1.614 ácaros coletados em plantas cítricas, 616 pertencem a grupos eminentemente predadores, 541 a grupos eminentemente fitófagos e 457 a grupos de hábitos alimentares variados. Dentre os fitófagos, B. yothersi foi a única espécie coletada pertencente à família Tenuipalpidae, com 192 espécimes. Maior diversidade foi observada para Tetranychidae, representada por quatro espécies. Dentre os predadores, Phytoseiidae foi a família mais diversa, representada por 14 espécies, e mais abundante, com 694 espécimes. Destas, duas espécies foram mais abundantes, Amblyseius aerialis Muma e Iphiseiodes zuluagai Denmark & Muma, tendo estas sido selecionadas para os testes conduzidos em laboratório, em que se avaliou a oviposição destes ácaros quando alimentadas com pólen de 14 espécies vegetais, um tipo de pólen disponível comercialmente e dois tipos de pólen obtidos de abelhas. Maiores níveis de oviposição de A. aerialis foram obtidos quando este foi alimentado com pólen de dendê, taboa, coco e o pólen comercial (respectivamente 1,5; 1,9; 0,9 e 0,9 ovo/fêmea/dia, respectivamente). Para I. zuluagai, os maiores níveis de oviposição foram obtidos quando alimentado com pólen de dendê, coco, taboa, pupunha e caiaué (1,6; 1,5; 1,2; 1,0 e 0,9 ovo/fêmea/dia, respectivamente). Estes pólen apresentam potencial para serem utilizados como fonte alimentar alternativa para predadores e é possível que estes tenham algum papel importante na manutenção de baixas populações de B. yothersi em pomares cítricos na região de Manaus. / The State of Amazonas is the second largest producer of orange in the northern region of Brazil, with potential to expand its production. However, supply is still insufficient; about 60% of the citrus consumed in Amazonas come from other regions. The importation of fruits from other regions facilitates the introduction of new pests and pathogens. However, the leprosis, caused by a virus transmitted by Brevipalpus yothersi Baker, the leprosis mite, has still not been cited as a problem for the state. The small amount of the leprosis mite and the presence of predatory mites in the orchard may be the explanation for this. The objective of this work was to evaluate the occurrence of the leprosis mite and other mites associated with it in Manaus region, and the possible effect of pollen of plants commonly found in citrus orchards of this region in the maintenance of phytoseiid predators in this crop. From 1,614 mites collected in citrus plants, 616 belong to predominantly predatory groups, 541 to predominantly phytophagous groups and 457 to groups of varied feeding habits. Among the phytophagous species, B. yothersi was the only representative of Tenuipalpidae, with 192 specimens. Greater diversity was observed for the Tetranychidae, represented by four species. Among predators, Phytoseiidae was the most diverse family, represented by 14 species, and most abundant, with 694 specimens. The two most abundant phytoseiid species, Amblyseius aerialis Muma and Iphiseiodes zuluagai Denmark and Muma, were selected for laboratory evaluations, consisting in the determination of oviposition rates on pollen of 14 plant species, one type of pollen commercially available and pollen collected by two bee species. Higher oviposition levels of A. aerialis were obtained when it was fed with oil palm, cattail, coconut and commercial pollen (1.5, 1.9, 0.9 and 0.9 egg/female/day, respectively). For I. zuluagai, highest oviposition levels were obtained when fed oil palm, coconut, cattail, peach palm and American oil pollen (1.6, 1.5, 1.2, 1.0 and 0.9 egg/female/day, respectively). These types of pollen are potentially useful as alternative food sources for those predators, and these plants may play an important role in the maintenance of low populations of B. yothersi in citrus orchards in Manaus region.