Developing countries are experiencing social and economic transformation which many countries have already experienced at some periods during the course of their history. In the rural areas of developing countries this transformation has taken the form of 'community development.' Community development is a process and a method by which the government mobilizes the initiative and energy of especially rural communities to improve their living conditions, through its financial and technical assistance. Up to date, over thirty countries have full-fledged community development programmes. As a result of different cultural practices of these countries, the diversity of their political and administrative organizations, their economic conditions, and, a multiplicity of other factors, the programmes have been tailored to suit the particular needs of each country. The programmes can be classified into three main types: integrative, adaptive, and project types. The extent to which the programmes are contributing to the development of rural areas constitutes the central problem which this paper seeks to examine. An assumption made is that, provided the programmes are well designed and administered, they can contribute substantially to rural development. Four important areas of activity of community development programmes; namely, agriculture, land reform, cottage and small-scale industries, and capital or physical facilities, such as roads, schools, health centres, and land reclamation, have critically been examined against the background of community and regional planning. In examining these contributions, it has been discovered that they are on the whole unsatisfactory because of the following reasons: (a) administrative difficulties created by the lack of co-ordination of activities between community development agencies and other government agencies; (b) ineffective community development techniques, such as, 'planning from below' and voluntary contribution of labour. Since the programmes are not making satisfactory contribution to rural development it is suggested that the government should play a dominant role in the planning of programmes. In essence, community development techniques should be integrated with community and regional planning techniques. Using Ghana as a test-case, it is also considered that community and regional planning can be useful, provided administrative difficulties are removed by establishing one central agency for community development under the highest administrator. In conclusion, it is determined that community development, through its multi-purpose programmes, attempts to solve socio-economic problems of rural communities, but its techniques are ineffective to solve these problems. Hence community development techniques must be integrated with the more effective techniques of community and regional planning. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The problem of comprehensive plan implementation is essentially one of guiding the many elements of urban land development in order to achieve a desired pattern of urban growth. To evaluate the potential value of one technique to provide a partial solution to the problem of guiding the pattern of urban land development it is hypothesized that the location of sites for public land uses influences the total pattern of urban land use and development and that the prior acquisition of sites for public use, in relation to a comprehensive community plan, is therefore an effective technique to guide the pattern of urban land development. A critical review of the available literature constitutes the methodology used to validate the hypothesis. This approach was necessitated because of limitations of time and resources; the apparent absence of specific research studies related directly to the hypothesis; the apparent non utilization of the technique by municipalities, and hence the absence of data for experimental, statistical, and case study analysis; and because of the difficulty of quantitative measurement of all the variables which would be required to verify the hypothesis. In addition to the review of the literature a proposed methodology is developed whereby the hypothesis may be tested. The first part of the review of the literature is concerned with the influence of public land uses on the pattern of urban land use and development and indicates that a hierarchy of factors exists which influences the pattern of urban land development, and that public land uses, while constituting a segment of this hierarchy, are near the bottom of it; that this degree of influence will not only be different in different cities but will be different over time in the same city; and that the locations of different public land uses do not have the same degree of influence, but where this influence is significant it will tend to intensify the pattern of development. The second part of the review of the literature is concerned with the economic, financial, political, and administrative feasibility of the proposed technique, for the majority of municipal governments and reveals that although this is an economically viable proposition nevertheless the financial, political, and administrative aspects are significant obstacles. In addition, it appears that only a few cities in the United States practise advance acquisition, and of these none do so with the purpose of guiding urban growth. The development of the methodology reveals that the hypothesis represents a complex cause and effect relationship that can be tested by experimental means using test and control areas, given the necessary time and resources. The basic limitation of the thesis is that it is restricted to a review of the literature and is therefore subject to the particular biases and prejudices of the authors whose works are used. There is also a scarcity of detailed objective data. Alternative potential approaches for substantiating the hypothesis, given sufficient time and resources, include an ex post facto case study, the use of interviews and questionnaires, and the use of statistical correlation. It is suggested that the application of the hypothesis to the field of urban redevelopment represents an additional approach whereby it could be verified. It is concluded that further research is needed in order to obtain a greater insight into, and an understanding of, the complex functional interrelationships existing between the pattern of urban land development and the factors that determine or influence it. An additional area for further research is in the testing of the hypothesis as it applies to urban redevelopment. The limitations and findings resulting from the review of the literature lead to the conclusion that the hypothesis as formulated cannot be verified on this basis. It is nevertheless concluded that if a municipal government were to utilize its full range of resources for making public policy decisions then it would be in an effective position to guide the pattern of urban land development. It is further concluded that the implications of the hypothesis be applied, by municipal governments, to the field of urban redevelopment. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

This study has been concerned with an examination of the validity of the hypothesis, that the shopping precinct is an efficient solution to the conflict between the pedestrian and the vehicle, in established central retail shopping areas of the city. Efficient pedestrian circulation within the city's central retail area appears as a fundamental principle in the design of new city centres in Europe, and as an essential component of city centre redevelopment designs in North America. The problem of pedestrian access to central areas in North American cities is complicated by the extensive use of the private automobile. The demands for space produced by roads and car parks has led to a serious deterioration in the physical form of the city, most particularly at the city centre. The city's central area contains the largest groupings of retail stores and attracts shoppers from the whole metropolitan area. This retailing function is of vital importance, to the values of the downtown property, and to the city for the revenue it produces for city services and further city development. Excessive vehicular traffic creates congestion in the city central areas and inhibits the use of the area for the / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Airports, as terminals for a new and dynamic form of transportation, are not only places for the movement and storage of aircraft — they have a major influence on urban development. This fact is often underestimated by civic officials, airline officials, and planners. Airports as terminals are no different in function from the older and more well established port and rail terminals around which many of today's cities have developed. Today, as in the past, industry often demonstrates a preference for sites near major transportation terminals and routes in order to minimize transfer cost, and to increase convenience of handling. The airport, as another type of transportation terminal, could therefore, be expected to exercise a similar influence, as the efficiency and utilization of air-freight and corporate air travel increase. Within the context of the total airport-community relationship, a determination of the desirability to industry of sites located in proximity to a major airport is considered significant. To this end the hypothesis is advanced that: AS THE MAJOR AIRPORT EVOLVES INTO A PASSENGER AND FREIGHT TERMINAL, CERTAIN TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL ESTABLISHMENTS OTHER THAN THOSE DIRECTLY CONCERNED WITH AVIATION, WILL DESIRE LOCATIONS ON OR NEAR THE AIRPORT SITE. A CASE STUDY: THE VANCOUVER METROPOLITAN AREA, B.C. The first stage in the investigation was to ascertain the nature of air freight and corporate air travel, and to describe the methods whereby these two new forms of transfer could benefit the operation of certain types of firms. Commodities presently being carried by air freight were then described, and their common characteristics determined. A high ratio of value to weight, perishability, fashionability, or emergency desirability were the most common characteristics of these commodities. For corporate air travel, a ranking of firms by 'propensity to travel' was established. Specific examples were found of airport location, by various industrial firms in several cities in the USA. These firms either produced, utilized, or distributed items suitable for air freight, or required extensive corporate travel. The hypothesis was, therefore, shown to have some relevance in these cities. From the established data, a list was derived of the types of firms considered to be those most likely to desire location near a major airport. The list was general and did not take into account regional differences in economies. In order to delineate the most suitable types of firms and to carry out interviews in the Case Study Area, it was necessary first to study the local economy and to amend the above list. By this method, only those firms would be interviewed that were representative of conditions in the Case Study Area. A Study Group was then chosen that represented a cross-section of suitable local firms. In order to investigate airport industrial location independently from other industrial location criteria, the attractiveness of an airport site location was ascertained under the following assumptions: i) Suitable land at a competitive price must be available at or close to Vancouver International Airport; ii) Good quality road and rail facilities must connect the airport to the major traffic generators of the metropolitan area; iii) Market factors must indicate the desirability of plant expansion, relocation, or creation; iv) Services such as water, sewer, and drainage must be available at reasonable cost; v) Airport and Municipal zoning regulation must permit the development anticipated; vi) Air freight rates will decrease as more efficient aircraft are introduced and freight volume increases; vii) A Customs Port will be established at the airport in the near future. Analysis of the survey response indicated that the majority of the managers of firms in the Study Group had considered the potential effects of air freight and corporate air travel on their operations. Twenty-five percent of the firms interviewed signified that relocation of part or all of their plants to a site near Vancouver International Airport was a distinct possibility in the near future. Thirty-five percent agreed with the hypothesis in principle, but believed it impractical for them because of other factors. Some of these factors (such as, for example, a need for locations central to service areas) may be reduced through future metropolitan growth. Forty percent of the firms rejected the hypothesis. Although further, more scientific surveys are required, several criteria emerged that may have significance for planning in the Vancouver Metropolitan Area or in regions economically similar to this area: i) Wholesale Distributors of Auto Parts, Textiles, and Industrial Machinery, and Distribution firms were those most favourable to airport location. Manufacturers were generally unfavourable; ii) Warehouses would comprise the predominant type of industrial use in any development in proximity to the airport; iii) Large firms of national or international scope were those most favourable to the hypothesis; iv) Firms that imported close to 100 percent of their stock tended to be those most favourable; v) There is a direct relationship between present regular use of air freight, and anticipated future regular use, with disposition to locate at or near the airport. Corporate air travel, though of concern, is not a definitive incentive to such location. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

One of the main concerns of the urban planner should be to establish an efficient pattern of locations for the goods and services that serve the population of the city and metropolitan region. Efficiency in the layout of a city should be sought as an objective, in keeping with aesthetic and sociological considerations, to provide a pleasing urban environment. To achieve efficiency in the distribution of establishments providing goods and services there must be a basis for making locational decisions. One method of analysis on which to base decisions is the Central Place System. This is a method of explaining the geographic distribution of centres which serve the surrounding population. The theory behind the Central Place System developed from observations on the distances people would travel to fulfil certain needs which could only be satisfied from a central place. A hierarchy of needs was recognized, some of which had to be satisfied frequently by everyone, such as the need for food. This need people would want satisfied at little cost of time and effort. For other less frequently required needs, people would be willing to travel further. A hierarchy of centres would thus develop, the smallest unit having only a grocery store and the largest unit possessing the complete range of functions to satisfy every need. The ideal pattern for such a hierarchy was postulated as a system of hexagons. This system was tested and found to be substantially valid in an area of equal distribution of disposable income and equal ease of travel in all directions. Before a hierarchical pattern can be established, however, the centrality of the centres must be measured. Presumably, the Central Business District is the highest order of centre in any urban region, in that it possesses the functions which people in the urban area are willing to travel the greatest distance to reach. The corner grocery store is the lowest order of centre. The measurement of the ranks that should be ascribed to centres between these two extremes involves concepts of the threshold and relative specialization of functions. The study of central places in Vancouver, British Columbia, revealed a hierarchy of functions and a resultant hierarchy of centres. Experimentation with the pattern suggested that certain tentative conclusions could be made based upon the observed hierarchy. The Central Place System is a way of synthetizing geographic and economic information into a coherent statement. It is useful to the urban planner as a basis for making policy decisions on locations of urban activities. Using the system, inefficiencies in the present layout of the city can be determined and plans made to counterbalance the existing inefficiencies. The hierarchical pattern of centres can serve as a basis for deciding where expressway interchanges should be located to combine local and through traffic needs. It is useful to determine where service centres should be in redevelopment areas. In areas being subjected to intensive development for the first time the Central Place System can be used to predetermine the best locations for service centres to serve the new area in co-ordination with the existing centres. The Central Place System provides a framework for study and analysis of the pattern of urban service centres in relation to each other and to the surrounding region. As well as being useful for making decisions with regard to specific location problems, it provides an understanding and a perspective for urban spatial relationships. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

It is usually contended that it is in the interest of the community to require certain minimum space standards between and around buildings to achieve safety and minimum health standards; to control the architectural design of buildings; to protect "amenity"; to limit the density of population; to reduce traffic congestion, and so on. Although safety, livability and appearance are generally accepted as the main purpose of site and space regulation, this study suggests that privacy can be accepted as suitable for control by site and space regulations. The underlying purpose of this study, therefore, is to investigate visual, auditory, olfactory, and physical privacy within the single-family residential environment. Of particular interest to the study are the methods of achieving privacy in the open space within the dwelling yard. On this basis, the specific purposes of the study are two-fold; first, a review and analysis of-existing site and space standards as they are found in the various types of land-use controls in order to determine their effect on privacy in the residential environment; and second, the formulation of a technique for site and space planning for privacy, based on a performance standards system. The basic methods of land-use control in North America are zoning and subdivision regulations. Research shows that current techniques of zoning and subdivision regulation in low-density residential areas do not achieve the benefits originally intended as the inflexible nature of the controls lead to a visual monotony in residential development. Worthy as some of the principles may have been at the outset, they have largely miscarried by such preoccupation with the tools of regulation that basic needs have been forgotten. One of these basic needs is privacy, which should he ensured, rather than adversely affected by site and space regulations. An owner should be able to protect his privacy without sacrificing light, air, or usability of any of the open space of his lot. The research demonstrates that adequate space around and between buildings for functional and aesthetic purposes can be achieved with greater' flexibility and without further restricting the individual's wishes in siting and building, his house on the usual single-family lot, through the use of performance standards. These measure space between and around buildings in relation to the variety of functions that they are to perform, and in relation to the size and dimension of land and buildings in a given situation. The investigation concludes that with few exceptions, present site and space standards for building and site planning are arbitrary and rigid, and that the spatial separation of buildings and yard areas resulting from the application, of these standards do not encourage privacy. Further, through the existence of such regulations as those concerning enclosure limitations, the resident is restricted in his means of minimizing the opportunities for infringement of his privacy by neighbours or those passing in the street. With regard to the statement of the hypothesis concerning performance standards, it can be concluded that in fact a technique for site and space planning for privacy as such, can not be evolved. However, regulations that are directly or indirectly related to privacy can be formed, based on a performance standards system in order to achieve a similar end result. To this end the hypothesis is advanced: That existing site and space standards adversely affect the privacy of open space within the residential environment; and that a technique for site and space planning for privacy can be evolved, based on a performance standards system. Most zoning and subdivision regulations are a reasonable and fair attempt to deal with a complex problem, but the results of residential development under present controls leave much to be desired. It is probably impossible to prohibit "bad" design or to pass legislation that a certain design must be followed. However, it is desirable and highly possible that -what controls we have could be more "positive" in effect to encourage and facilitate good imaginative design. This new approach to controls, with the necessary flexibility, is a must if we are to .take advantage of the past, present and future technological developments; to keep up with and give expression to the ever-changing and improving "way of life"; and to maintain as much as possible the individual's freedom of choice and expression, within his own residential environment. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Growth and development of a community may be hampered, not only by lack of planning, but also by a wrong approach to planning. Hence, in order to ensure proper growth and development of a community, it is necessary to examine the underlying structure of the community as well as the proper approach to its planning. An analysis of the current approach to planning shows that a long-range comprehensive master plan is thought to be highly desirable, if not essential, before any planning can be done in a community. The myth of the master plan has been accepted not only by most of the experts and legislators concerned with planning, but also by the people in general. Although the validity of this myth has never been clearly demonstrated, no one has seriously challenged its utility in relation to planning for small communities. An analysis of the political, economic and sociological structure of small communities in British Columbia shows that the master plan approach is neither necessary nor desirable for planning in these communities. This discovery should serve as a warning to those who confound "planning" with "plan making" and as a hope for those who are under the erroneous impression that before a community can do any planning, it must first have a master plan. The alternative approach to planning for small communities in British Columbia is described by the author as "The Community Development Approach". This approach recognizes planning as a continuous process; it places greater emphasis on community organization, community participation and community action. In short, it replaces the traditional motto of planners: "Survey, Analysis and Plan" by "Organization, Planning and Action.” / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The human race exists and progresses by virtue of a sum of knowledge, with which it is able to maintain a measure of control over the physical world. The real wealth of any region, race or nation is drawn from the land and today much of this land is bankrupt. Through overpopulation and misuse of his natural resources, man is rapidly backing himself into an ecological trap. The solution to this problem is to increase what may be termed the "carrying capacity" of the land. The only way this may be done is by national land use planning and development of resources on a regional basis. In developing land for any purpose, man faces certain physical limitations. The two most obvious and important are climate and land forms. Throughout history these fields have been studied and today are large and complex branches of science - they have remained, however, largely separate fields. Only very recently have some advances been made in the field of climatic geomorphology. The investigators in this field have tried to show some of the complex interrelationships that exist between climate and geomorphology. Unfortunately, although it shows great promise, most work to date has been on a highly academic level and its practical application has been piecemeal at best. This thesis is a modest attempt to define, on one hand, some fundamental interrelationships between climatology and geomorphology and then, on the other hand, to apply these defined principles to selected types of resource development regions. In this presentation, it is recognized that other factors, economic, political, administrative, technological, etc. may be equally, if not more important, in determining the patterns and nature of regional resource development; these factors, however, are only referred to in passing. The overall presentation is as follows: firstly, the need for regional resource planning is discussed in the light of pertinent physical factors. This is followed by two chapters which present an introduction into climatology and land forms. In these chapters the basic concepts and terms of these fields are explained and provide the essential background for the discussion to follow. To conclude the discussion of the physical elements, the two fields are interrelated and fundamental principles applicable to regional resource development, are developed. In the next section of the paper these principles are applied to selected types of resource development regions. In this connection, two major areas of development are examined as "case studies". These areas include: (1) the Kitimat-Kemano region as an example of the development of one resource; (2) the Lower Mainland region as an example of complex resource development which is influenced by a large urban area. Finally, the general applications of climatic and geomorphic principles to regional resource development which emerge from the examination of the two case studies are discussed. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

1. The aim of the study is to formulate a quantitative definition of a satellite town as a guide for planning policy, and to demonstrate a method for measuring the amount and effect of existing links with the parent city when sites for planned satellite towns are being selected and developed. 2. A review of the ideals aimed at in the planning of satellite towns suggests that a survey of existing linkage is a basic requirement in order to show where new or expanded satellites can be located so as to take advantage of existing ties and minimize the disruption of the settlement pattern. 3. A comprehensive short-cut measure of economic and social linkage between a metropolis and its hinterland is provided by data on interaction, and this is available in records of inter-community telephone calls. Such data are used in a survey and analysis of the Lower Mainland of B.C., part of the hinterland of Vancouver. 4. By analogy with physics, a satellite town is defined as a community under the influence of a central city but having an equal balancing force which maintains its status as a fully-fledged urban centre. Such a force might be the power of the satellite as a local industrial or service centre, or, in terms of interaction, an equal number of contacts with other areas to balance those with the city. 5. The gravity concept of human interaction is considered as one possible method of arranging hinterland areas according to the strength of their linkage with the metropolis. However, this shows potential rather than actual interaction, and tells nothing about the quality of linkage. 6. A better measure of linkage is one based on the assumption that the strongest links are those which exist in spite of distance or cultural barriers to interaction. An index is devised to measure this, which shows the potential locations for satellite towns, other things being equal. 7. The ecological concepts of dominance and sub-dominance provide the basis for an analysis of the structure of the Lower Mainland Region, to show what economic and social development should take place on the potential locations in order to maintain or create the balance essential to satellite status. 8. In applying these definitions and methods to the selection of sites for satellite towns the areas most strongly linked to the metropolis are examined in order to determine whether: (a) they have enough suitable land, (b) their populations are below the optimum, (c) they are at an optimum distance from the metropolis. 9. The data on inter-community telephone calls is shown to be of use to the planner, and suggestions are made as to the further uses and refinements which might be introduced in future research. 10. The methods formulated in this study show that it is feasible for practising planners to take interaction into account, and by doing so to gain further knowledge about the ecological structure of city regions. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The purpose of this thesis is twofold; first, to focus attention on the problems presently confronting metropolitan area open space and secondly, to develop a programme of implementation that can be utilized within the metropolitan area's framework of administration. Over the last several decades a wealth of material has been published on parks, both from the conservation and preservation aspect; recently there has been a slight shift of emphasis towards a study of outdoor recreation in relation to user's demands and overuse. But, in most instances the focus has been on either a broader level, such as provincial, state, or federal parks, or a narrower level, as in the case of city or neighbourhood recreation facilities. Yet, the most important urban area in North America, the metropolis, is not receiving proper attention and treatment. The second consideration, probably the most significant, is that nothing on a comprehensive basis is being accomplished to specifically alleviate the situation in the metropolitan area. To be sure, programmes have been suggested, and each separate governmental authority is aware of certain of these problems. Some people have suggested zoning, the use of taxation and easements to mention but a few examples, to solve the open space dilemma. However, these devices are not sufficient if any progress is to be made against the indiscriminate affects of the market. The solution suggested in this study is the use of a financial implementation technique administered by a comprehensive metropolitan government body. Thus, a start could be made towards improving the relationship of parks and open space to the growing urban population. The approach of the study is basically one of considering all the ramifications involved in the discussion of the metropolitan community and the utilization of parks and open space. The first step is to bring to the reader's attention the open space problems that are currently being created because of the population expansion outwards into the suburbs and beyond and the unchecked application of "highest and best use" theory to all types of land. Sprawl, scatteration and disorganized land speculation have caused a real crisis in available and potential outdoor recreation sites. The second step is a general appraisal of the affects of our changing living pattern on the demands and uses of open space. Here, the assumption is that open space has been accepted as being for the public good. The increased amount of leisure, higher income and greater mobility have all played a vital role in influencing outdoor recreation characteristics. As a further consideration, one factor that has largely been overlooked until recently is the need for natural spaces to ease mankind's emotional and psychological experiences. Next an examination is made of ways and means now available for a public agency to conserve open spaces; these could be divided into three major elements, taxing powers, police powers and those of eminent domain. In this evaluation particular attention is paid to agricultural zoning, conservation easments, and metropolitan government. Based on this survey, it is concluded that none of these methods are sufficiently comprehensive enough nor adequate financially to alleviate the growing deficiencies of open space in the metropolitan community. The proposed solution consists of three major elements; first, the need for some form of metropolitan government; secondly, the financial programme utilizing the sharing of gasoline tax revenue as a means of providing an open space development fund; and thirdly, a metropolitan development programme establishing open space goals and objectives within the framework of a metropolitan master plan. To bring out the highlights of such a proposal a case study of the Vancouver Metropolitan Area is utilized. The value of this study may be summed up in adding further knowledge to the study and examination of metropolitan problems, especially relative to outdoor recreation and open space. In essence it is an extended examination of the possible devices which can be applied to achieve positive planned results; at this level, the thesis has attempted to furnish another possible means of implementing a comprehensive metropolitan open space development programme. If some stimulation is engendered amongst those people concerned with solving our urban problems, then this thesis may have had some value. Today, the urban dweller is faced with a perplexing challenge, if he is to achieve a fuller, more satisfying life. Public effort must be enlivened to counteract the disturbing land forces that are at work. Allowing these pressures to continue will not only disturb and destroy the natural countryside but will totally unravel any sense of urban and rural balance. We will be left with a monotonous patchwork pattern of tract houses, cement freeways, asphalt parking areas and geometrically designed buildings instead of selected areas of woodlands, streams, and meadows. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate