The Mononegavirales order unifies the non-segmented negative sense viruses (nsNSVs), including Marburgvirus (MARV) of the Filoviridae family and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) of the Pneumoviridae. The mechanism of action of these viruses and how they infect cells are very similar, especially when focusing on their polymerases, which are distinct from those of eukaryotes and therefore possible targets for antiviral drugs. nsNSVs utilize a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to either replicate the viral RNA genome or transcribe it into positive sense mRNA. Despite this, these two viruses result in very different, but equally devastating, effects in humans. Whereas MARV virus often results in rare but fatal hemorrhagic fevers, RSV is a common seasonal virus that can result in long term negative effects to respiratory health. These negative effects on public health demand extensive research in these two fields and a need to develop new technology and methods in order to uncover the missing pieces of viral gene expression. Specifically, the development of a MARV minigenome system would allow for increased testing of this virus outside of the confines of the biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) setting. By replacing MARV genes with reporter genes, but retaining the characteristic leader, intergenic, and trailer regions of the genome, tests involving site directed mutagenesis would reveal new insights into the crucial genomic elements needed for successful gene expression. Coupled with the transfection of the minigenome with plasmids coding for the crucial MARV proteins, artificial changes to the genome would lead to the presence of absence of translated bioluminescent reporter proteins. Using these two viruses, this study attempted to find commonalities across families. Specifically, the goals of this research were twofold, to find the optimal ratio of MARV plasmids in the minigenome system to understand the effects of the stem-loop secondary structure of MARV mRNA transcripts as well as determine the tail length of the poly(A) tail of RSV mRNA transcripts using digestion and probing primers. Calculating the RSV poly(A) tail length would allow for further research into determining whether the MARV and RSV polymerase polyadenylates before or after it releases the transcript. Despite multiple failed attempts, transfections using pCAGGS plasmids and the eGFP monocistronic minigenome in a 6-well plate qualitatively demonstrated the need for pCAGGS-L plasmid concentration of 1000 ng/µl. Due to time constraints, the poly(A) tail length of the RSV NS-1 mRNA transcript could not be determined. Overall, this study focused on gaining new insights on the techniques and procedures necessary for conducting virus research in a biosafety level 2 (BSL-2) setting, as well as developing troubleshooting skills in approaching fail experiments.

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Genome regulation is an extremely complex phenomenon. There are various mechanisms in place to ensure smooth performance of the organism. Post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression is one such mechanism. Many proteins bind to mRNAs and regulate their translation. In this thesis, I have focused on the Cytoplasmic Polyadenylation Element Binding family of proteins (CPEB1-4); a group of sequence specific RNA binding proteins important for cell cycle progression, senescence, neuronal function and plasticity. CPEB protein binds mRNAs containing a short Cytoplasmic Polyadenylation Element (CPE) in 3’ untranslated Region (UTR) and regulates the polyadenylation of these mRNAs and thereby controls translation. In Chapter II, I have presented my work on the regulation of mitochondrial function by CPEB. CPEB knockout mice have brain specific defects in mitochondrial function owing to a reduction in Electron transport chain complex I component protein NDUFV2. CPEB controls the translation of this NDUFV2 mRNA and thus affects mitochondrial function. A consequence of this reduced bioenergetics is reduced growth and branching of neurons, again emphasizing the importance of this pathway. Chapter III focuses on the role of CPEB4 in neuronal survival and protection against apoptosis. CPEB4 shuttles between nucleus and cytoplasm and becomes nuclear in response to stimulation with ionotropic glutamate receptors, focal ischemia in vivo and when cultured neurons are deprived of oxygen and glucose; nuclear CPEB4 affords protection against apoptosis in ischemia model. The underlying cause for nuclear translocation is reduction in Endoplasmic Reticulum calcium levels. These studies give an insight into the function and dynamics of these two RNA binding proteins and provide a better understanding of cellular biology.

Polyadenylation is an essential post-transcriptional modification resulting in a mature mRNA in eukaryotes. Three cis-elements the Far Upstream Element (FUE), Near Upstream Element (NUE), and Cleavage Site (CS) - guide the process of cleavage and polyadenylation with the help of multi-subunit protein complexes cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF), cleavage stimulation factor (CstF) along with cleavage factors and poly(A) polymerase. Protein-protein interactions play an important role in the cleavage and polyadenylation process. WD repeat proteins play an important role in protein-protein interactions and have diverse functions in plant system. In the present study WD repeat proteins AtCstF50 and AtFY were studied for their role in polyadenylation process. Mammalian CstF50 is a WD repeat protein that is one of the subunit of CstF that aids in the cleavage step by associating with CPSF and cleavage factors. AtCstF50 was functionally characterized using T-DNA knock-out lines and by identifying the proteins that interacts with it in the process. Results shows that AtCstF50 is essential and was identified as part of CPSF complex, which is different from its mammalian counter part. CPSF was known to interact with Fip (factor interacting with PAP), Poly(A) polymerase and Poly(A) binding protein and AtCstF50 also interacts with these complexes. AtFY is a 3’ end processing factor which contains WD repeats is one of the subunits of the CPSF complex in Arabidopsis polyadenylation machinery. The AtFY interacts with FCA and promotes the alternative polyadenylation and also plays a role in polyadenylation site choice of FCA mRNA. We characterized the FY expression and localization of FY in the cell by fusing with RFP reporter. Results show that FY accumulates in the nucleus while FY with deleted calmodulin binding domain localizes both to the nucleus and outside the nucleus. The individual N-terminal and C-terminal domains also localized in the nucleus suggesting that they are multiple nuclear localization signals in FY and calmodulin might play a direct or indirect role in FY localization. Using a tethering assay we proved that AtFY is able to recruit the 3’ end processing complex in the proximal polyadenylation site choice of the reporter mRNA.

Messenger RNAs (mRNAs) have to undergo a series of post-transcriptional processing steps before translation. One of the post-transcriptional steps - 3' end processing, which consists of cleavage and polyadenylation, is critical for delimiting the 3' end of mRNA and determining regulatory elements for downstream post-transcriptional/translational regulation. Like another well-characterized mRNA processing step - splicing, 3' end processing is very flexible due to the diversity of trans-acting factors and cis-acting elements in the 3' end of mRNA. In recent years, the differential usage of alternative polyA sites (APA) of the same gene, which leads to mRNA isoforms of different 3' UTR, has been increasingly revealed by both experimental and computational studies. More significantly, the global changes of 3' UTR length have been observed in multiple clinical settings, particularly in the cancer cells. However, the depiction of APA phenomenon does not synchronize the efforts to study the mechanism underlying APA biogenesis. In this thesis, we first describe general principle and pipeline to identify APA in different biological or clinical conditions using various high throughput sequencing techniques. After that, we present the work about the global impacts of two RNA binding proteins (ESRP/aCP) and one core 3' end processing factor (CstF64 and its paralog CstF64τ) on the regulation of APA. The APA identification analyses and motif analyses suggest a wide range of APA associated with the expression change of those proteins in different cell lines. In addition, for each protein, we have collect substantial evidence about the mechanism underlying the APA induction. Our findings could provide significant insights into the APA regulation mechanisms. In addition, we also conducted a research on the induction of APA in JEG-3 cells as a response to the change of oxygen supply (Hypoxia and Normoxia). Using a robustness protocol for specifically sequencing 3' end of mRNA, we identified more than 500 APA events and revealed a global shortening pattern of 3' UTR length as a result of hypoxia. The work on APA in this thesis largely increases the understanding of APA regulation by various proteins and provided new evidence for the APA in clinical condition.

Polyadenylation of pre-mRNAs is critical for efficient nuclear export, stability, and translation of the mature mRNAs, and thus for gene expression. The bulk of pre-mRNAs are processed by canonical nuclear poly(A) polymerase (PAPS). Both vertebrate and higher-plant genomes encode more than one isoform of this enzyme, and these are coexpressed in different tissues. However, in neither case is it known whether the isoforms fulfill different functions or polyadenylate distinct subsets of pre-mRNAs. This thesis shows that the three canonical nuclear PAPS isoforms in Arabidopsis are functionally specialized owing to their evolutionarily divergent C-terminal domains. A moderate loss-of-function mutant in PAPS1 leads to increase in floral organ size, whereas leaf size is reduced. A strong loss-of-function mutation causes a male gametophytic defect, whereas a weak allele leads to reduced leaf growth. By contrast, plants lacking both PAPS2 and PAPS4 function are viable with wild-type leaf growth. Polyadenylation of SMALL AUXIN UP RNA (SAUR) mRNAs depends specifically on PAPS1 function. The resulting reduction in SAUR activity in paps1 mutants contributes to their reduced leaf growth, providing a causal link between polyadenylation of specific pre-mRNAs by a particular PAPS isoform and plant growth. Additionally, opposite effects of PAPS1 on leaf and flower growth reflect the different identities of these organs. The overgrowth of paps1 mutant petals is due to increased recruitment of founder cells into early organ primordia whereas the reduced leaf size is due to an ectopic pathogen response. This constitutive immune response leads to increased resistance to the biotrophic oomycete Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis and reflects activation of the salicylic acid-independent signalling pathway downstream of ENHANCED DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY1 (EDS1)/PHYTOALEXIN DEFICIENT4 (PAD4). Immune responses are accompanied by intracellular redox changes. Consistent with this, the redox-status of the chloroplast is altered in paps1-1 mutants. The molecular effects of the paps1-1 mutation were analysed using an RNA sequencing approach that distinguishes between long- and short tailed mRNA. The results shown here suggest the existence of an additional layer of regulation in plants and possibly vertebrate gene expression, whereby the relative activities of canonical nuclear PAPS isoforms control de novo synthesized poly(A) tail length and hence expression of specific subsets of mRNAs. / Polyadenylierung von prä-mRNAs ist entscheidend für den Export aus dem Zellkern, die Stabilität und die Translation der reifen mRNAs und dadurch für die Genexpression. Der Großteil der mRNAs wird durch sogenannte canonische Poly(A) Polymerasen (cPAPS) prozessiert. Die Genome von sowohl Wirbeltieren als auch Pflanzen kodieren mehr als eine Isoform dieser Enzyme, welche gleichzeitig in verschiedenen Geweben exprimiert werden. Es ist jedoch kein Beispiel bekannt, das zeigt, ob die verschiedenen Isoformen unterschiedliche Funktionen einnehmen bzw. verschiedene Untergruppen von mRNAs polyadenylieren. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass drei canonische PAPS Isoformen in Arabidopsis thaliana aufgrund ihrer evolutionär unterschiedlichen C-terminalen Domänen spezialisierte Funktionen haben. Eine schwache Verlust-Mutation im PAPS1 Gen bewirkt eine Vergrößerung der Blütenorgane, während die Blattgröße vermindert ist. Eine starke Verlust-Mutation bewirkt zusätzlich einen Defekt der männlichen Keimzellen. Im Gegenzug dazu sind Mutanten des PAPS2 oder PAPS4 Gens gesund und zeigen ein normales Wachstum. Polyadenylierung von SMALL AUXIN UP RNA (SAUR) mRNAs hängt spezifisch von der Funktion von PAPS1 ab. Die daraus entstehende Reduzierung der SAUR Aktivität in den paps1 Mutanten trägt zur Verringerung der Blattgröße bei und stellt eine kausale Verbindung zwischen Polyadenylierung spezifischer mRNAs durch bestimmte PAPS Isoformen und Pflanzenwachstum dar. Zusätzlich spiegeln die unterschiedlichen Effekte von PAPS1 auf Blüten und Blätter die Identitäten dieser Organe wieder. Das übermäßige Wachstum der mutanten Petalen beruht auf einer erhöhten Anzahl an Gründer-Zellen im frühen Primordium, wohingegen die verminderte Blattgröße auf eine ektopische Pathogen Antwort zurückzuführen ist. Diese konstitutive Immunantwort bewirkt eine erhöhte Resistenz der Mutanten gegenüber dem biotrophen Oomyceten Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis und reflektiert die Aktivierung des Salizylsäure unabhängigen Signalweges von ENHANCED DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY1 (EDS1)/PHYTOALEXIN DEFICIENT4 (PAD4). Immunantworten sind von Veränderungen des intrazellulären Redoxpotenzials gekennzeichnet. Damit übereinstimmend zeigen die Chloroplasten der paps1-1 Mutanten ein verändertes Redoxpotenzial. Zur genaueren Aufklärung der molekularen Effekte der paps1 1 mutation wurde eine RNA-Sequenzierungsmethode verwendet, die zwischen mRNAs mit langem oder kurzem Poly(A) Schwanz unterscheidet. Die Aktivitäten der verschiedenen canonischen PAPS Isoformen kontrollieren die Länge des neu synthetisierten poly(A) Schwanzes und damit die Expression spezifischer Untergruppen von mRNAs. Dadurch lassen die hier gezeigten Ergebnisse eine weitere Ebene der Genregulierung in Pflanzen, und möglicherweise auch in anderen Eukaryoten, vermuten.

La maturation des ARN implique un grand nombre d’évènements post-transcriptionnels, parmi lesquels la polyadénylation qui constitue une étape clé. Chez Arabidopsis, la présence de l’hétérochromatine au niveau des introns de certains gènes peut influencer considérablement la polyadénylation de leur transcrits. INCREASED IN BONSAI METHYLATION2 (IBM2) est une protéinequi contrôle cette catégorie de gènes en reconnaissant l’hétérochromatine au niveau des introns via son domaine BOMO-ADJACENT HOMOLOGY (BAH). IBM2 se lie à l’ARNm par son motif RNA RECOGNOTION (RRM), afin d’assurer la transcription complète de ces gènes cibles en favorisant l’utilisation d’un site distal de polyadénylation. Par conséquent, en mutant IBM2, des plus transcrits courts sont synthétisés suite à une polyadénylation précoce au niveau de la régionhétérochromatique. Durant ma thèse, j’ai cherché à comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires sous-jacents de cette régulation tout en étudiant le rôle du complexe protéique IBM2. Nous avons identifié des protéines partenaires d’IBM2 déjà étudiées telle que ENHANCED DOWNY MILDEW2 (EDM2) et ASI-IMMUNOPRECIPITATED PROTEIN1 (AIPP1), ainsi qu’une nouvelle protéine interagissant physiquement avec IBM2 et d’autres protéines. La mutation du gène correspondant à cette protéine conduit à une réduction de l’expression globale des cibles d’IBM2testées, accompagnée d’un niveau réduit de transcrits longs fonctionnels. Moyennant un crible génétique des suppresseurs de la mutation ibm2, nous avons identifié plusieurs facteurs agissant en amont de la voie IBM2, notamment la protéine FLOWERING TIME CONTROL (FPA). FPA est une protéine capable de s’associer à l’ARN pour favoriser l’utilisation de sites proximaux de polyadénylation de plusieurs gènes cibles, avec parmi eux des gènes contrôlés par IBM2, ce qui suggère que la transcription complète de ces gènes dépend étroitement des actions antagonistes entre IBM2 et FPA. Nos résultats ont montré que le choix du site de polyadénylation de gènes contenant de l’hétérochromatine dépend de plusieurs protéines agissant en différents complexes ainsi que l’interconnexion avec d’autres voies. / RNA maturation implies numerous post-transcriptional modifications in whichpolyadenylation is a key step. In Arabidopsis, the heterochromatin found within introns(intronic-HC) can impact transcripts polyadenylation of host genes. INCREASED IN BONSAI METHYLATION2 (IBM2), an RNA-binding protein containing a bromo-adjacent homology (BAH) domain, interacts with intronic-HC to produce functional full-length transcripts by promoting distal polyadenylation. Loss of IBM2 function triggers short transcripts production due to premature polyadenylation from the heterochromatic region. During my thesis, I investigated the role of proteins that may belong to different sub-complexes in the regulation of intronic-HC containing genes. We identified IBM2 partners, including ENHANCED DOWNY MILDEW 2 (EDM2) and ASI-IMMUNOPRECIPITATED PROTEIN1 (AIPP1), and a novel partner that interacts directly with IBM2 and other proteins. Mutating the corresponding gene of the novel partner results in decreased expression of tested IBM2-targets such as IBM1 encoding an H3K9demethylase and the disease resistance gene RECOGNITION OF PERONOSPORA PARASITICA 7 (RPP7), accompanied with compromised use of their distal polyadenylation sites. By conducting a genetic screen of ibm2 mutation suppressors, we identified factors belonging to different pathways that act upstream of IBM2, among them the FLOWERING TIME CONTROL PROTEIN (FPA). FPA is an RNA-binding protein that promotes the use of proximal polyadenylation sitesof several genes such as IBM1. Our data bring evidence that antagonistic actions of FPA and IBM2 regulates polyadenylation sites choice at intronic-HC containing genes. These results provide new insights to understand the interplay between heterochromatin and RNA processing.

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