Cancer is the collective term used to describe a diverse group of diseases that share certain hallmarks, which in turn enables the affected cells to sustain an uncontrolled cell growth. Despite the increasing efforts and advances in cancer therapies, cancers are still responsible for approximately 10% of all the deaths worldwide. Furthermore, the increase in the average human lifespan will further contribute to the cancer incidences. This brings the necessity to focus our efforts on early detection and effective diagnosis methods. With the advances in high-throughput genomics technologies, gene expression signatures have gained attention as a novel method in cancer diagnostics. These signatures are identified by simply comparing the expression levels of genes in tumor and control samples. Here, we propose an alternative method based on the probe expression level measurement of 3&rsquo / UTR of candidate genes. We chose breast cancer as a model and performed an in silico analysis on publicly available gene expression datasets of Affymetrix chips to analyse 3&rsquo / UTR shortening during breast cancer situation. Overall, our analysis suggests that shortening of 3&rsquo / UTR is a significant mechanism observed in breast cancer .

Poly(A) polymerase (PAP) is the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of the adenine tail to the 3’-end of mRNA. This A-tail is present on the majority of the primary RNA transcripts of protein-coding genes, and is important for mRNA stability, export to the cytoplasm and translation. Therefore, PAP is a key regulator of eukaryotic gene expression. This thesis describes the heterogeneity of PAP and the functional significance of multiple isoforms of PAP. PAP exists in many different isoforms generated by three different mechanisms, gene duplication, alternative mRNA processing and post-translational modification. In HeLa cell extracts three different forms of PAP being 90, 100 and 106 kDa in size have been detected, where the 106 kDa isoform is a phosphorylated version of the 100 kDa species. It is shown that the N-terminal region of PAP contains a region required for catalysis, while the C-terminal end is important for the interaction with the cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF). Interestingly, it was found that also the extreme N-terminal end is important for the interaction with CPSF. This region is post-translationally modified by phosphorylation. Five alternatively spliced forms of PAP mRNAs are encoded by the PAPOLA gene while one unique species is encoded by the PAPOLG gene. The analysis showed that the exact structure of the alternatively spliced C-terminal end of PAP played an important role for catalytic efficiency. Thus, the C-terminal end contains a region important for modulating the catalytic efficiency of PAP. Aminoglycoside antibiotics inhibit PAP activity, most likely by displacement of catalytically important divalent metal ions. Data shows that different aminoglycosides inhibit PAP activity by different mechanisms suggesting that the binding sites for the different aminoglycosides do not completely overlap. It is concluded that aminoglycosides interfere with enzymes important for housekeeping functions in mammalian cell, which may explain some of the toxic side effects caused by aminoglycoside antibiotics in clinical practice.

Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) is the major causative agent of cervical cancer. The life cycle of this oncogenic DNA tumour virus is strictly associated with the differentiation program of the infected epithelial cells. Expression of the viral capsid genes L1 and L2 can only be detected in the terminally differentiated epithelial cells. The studies here focus on the regulation of HPV-16 late gene expression, which is under tight regulation. Our experimental system consisted of almost the full length HPV-16 genome driven by a strong CMV promoter. This plasmid and mutants thereof could be transfected into HeLa cells and RNA levels monitored. Using this system, we identified an hnRNP A1-dependent splicing silencer between positions 178 and 226 of the L1 gene. This silencer inhibited the use of the 3' splice site, located immediately upstream of the L1 AUG. We speculate that this splicing silencer plays an essential role in preventing late gene expression at an early stage of the viral life cycle. We subsequently identified a splicing enhancer located in the first 17 nucleotides of L1 that may be needed to counteract the multiple hnRNP A1 dependent splicing silencers in the L1 coding region. A 55kDa protein specifically bound to this splicing enhancer. We also demonstrated that binding of the cellular factors to the splicing silencer in the L1 coding region had an inhibitory effect on expression from L1 cDNA expression plasmids. The HPV-16 genome is divided into the early region and the late region, separated by the early poly(A) signal (pAE). pAE is used preferentially early in infection, thereby efficiently blocking late gene expression. We demonstrated that a 57 nucleotide U-rich region of the early 3’untranslated region (3’eUTR) acted as an enhancing upstream element on the usage of pAE. We demonstrated that this U-rich region specifically interacts with hFip1, CstF-64, hnRNP C1/C2 and PTB, suggesting that these factors were either enhancing or regulating polyadenylation at the HPV-16 pAE. In conclusion, two regulatory RNA elements that both act to prevent late gene expression at an early stage in the viral life cycle and in proliferating cells were identified: a splicing silencer in the late region and an upstream u-rich element at the pAE.

<p>HDV antigenomic RNA is processed in two distinct pathways; it can be cleaved at the polyA site and polyadenylated to become mRNA for the delta antigens, or the RNA can be cleaved by the antigenomic ribozyme to become full-length antigenomic RNA that is used for synthesis of genomic HDV RNA. The polyA site is located just 33 nucleotides upstream of the ribozyme cleavage site. If processing occurs primarily at the upstream polyA site, there may not be enough full-length antigenomic RNA to support replication. On the other hand, ribozyme cleavage downstream of the polyA site could inhibit polyadenylation by interfering with polyadenylation complex assembly. Thus, it appears that HDV may need a mechanism to control RNA processing so that both products can be generated in the proper amounts during the infection cycle. </p><p>A model has been proposed in which the choice between ribozyme cleavage and polyadenylation is determined by alternative RNA secondary structures formed by the polyA sequence (Wadkins and Been 2002). One of the hypothetical structures, AltP2, is a pairing between part of the upstream polyA sequence and the 3' end of the ribozyme sequence. For this model, the same upstream sequence that forms AltP2 could also form a stem loop, P(-1), within the leader, by pairing with sequences located farther upstream. A processing choice is possible because AltP2 is predicted to inhibit ribozyme cleavage and favor polyadenylation resulting in mRNA production, whereas P(-1) would inhibit polyadenylation and favor ribozyme cleavage resulting in full-length replication product. </p><p>The P(-1) vs. AltP2 model was tested using an antigenomic HDV ribozyme construct with the 60-nucleotide sequence upstream of the ribozyme cleavage site. This leader sequence contains the proposed polyA sequence elements. In vitro analysis of this construct revealed that the kinetic profile of ribozyme self-cleavage was altered in two ways. Relative to the ribozyme without upstream sequences, the fraction of precursor RNA that cleaved decreased to about 50%, but the active ribozyme fraction cleaved faster. Native gel electrophoresis revealed that the active and inactive precursor RNAs adopted persistent alternative structures, and structure mapping with Ribonuclease T1 and RNase H provided evidence for structures resembling P(-1) and AltP2.</p><p>Sequence changes in the 5' leader designed to alter the relative stability of P(-1) and AltP2 increased or decreased the extent of ribozyme cleavage in a predictable way, but disrupting AltP2 did not completely restore ribozyme activity. The analysis of deletion and base change variants supported a second alternative pairing, AltP4, formed by the pyrimidine-rich sequence immediately 5' of the ribozyme cleavage site and a purine-rich sequence from the 5' side of P4. A similar approach was used to test if the effect of disrupting both AltP2 and AltP4 might be additive, and the results suggested that ribozyme precursors with 5' leader sequences could fold into multiple inactive conformations, which can include, but may not be limited to, AltP2, AltP4, or a combination of both.</p><p>Luciferase expression constructs with HDV polyA and ribozyme sequences were used to investigate the effects of RNA structure and ribozyme cleavage on polyadenylation in cells. One hypothesis was that P(-1) could inhibit polyadenylation by making the polyA sequence elements less accessible to polyA factors, but sequence changes designed to alter the stability of the stem loop had no effect on polyadenylation. The model also predicts that the ribozyme sequence downstream of the polyA site could affect polyadenylation, possibly in two different ways. Ribozyme cleavage could interfere with polyadenylation by uncoupling transcription from processing, however, the ribozyme sequence might also influence polyadenylation in a manner independent of the ribozyme cleavage activity. As such, the AltP2 structure could potentially have a positive effect on polyadenylation either by inhibiting ribozyme cleavage or by making the polyA signal sequences more accessible to the polyA factors. To distinguish between the effects of ribozyme cleavage and alternative RNA structures, luciferase expression levels from constructs with an HDV polyA sequence followed by the active wild-type ribozyme or the inactive C76u version of the ribozyme were compared. For the wild-type HDV polyA sequence, the active ribozyme reduced expression, whereas the inactive ribozyme control had no effect on expression. However, for the modified leader sequences, which were efficiently polyadenylated in the absence of ribozyme, there were changes in expression that appeared to be independent of ribozyme cleavage. Based on these findings, two alternative models are proposed. One model predicts that protein factors might affect antigenomic RNA processing, and the other model suggests that additional alternative structures, such as AltP4, might influence the choice between ribozyme cleavage and polyadenylation.</p> / Dissertation

Seed germination has many impacts on the uses of seeds, and is an important subject for study. Seed germination is regulated at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. Therefore, it is important to study how polyadenylation regulates gene expression during seed germination. To this end, a modified Illumina GAIIx sequencing protocol (described in Chapter Two) was developed that allows deep coverage of poly(A) site position and distribution. Alternative polyadenylation (APA) regulates gene expression by choosing one potential poly(A) site on a precursor RNA consequentially shortening/lengthening the mRNA relative to other possible sites. To further explore this phenomenon, genes affected by APA during seed germination and other developmental stages were identified (Chapter Three). These genes were categorized based on the location of poly(A) sites. Several genes were chosen to demonstrate how APA, especially that occurring in the coding regions and 5’ untranslated regions, might down regulate gene expression by generating truncated transcripts. In animal oocytes, maternally-derived mRNAs are stored with short poly(A) tails and reactivated by the cytoplasmic polyadenylation complex. It has been reported that seeds also contain stored mRNAs. Moreover, germination and its completion are less sensitive to de novo transcription inhibitors than to poly(A) polymerase inhibitors. Together, these considerations suggest that stored RNA without or with a short poly(A) tail (stored, unadenylated RNA) may be present in dry seed and function in seed germination upon reactivation by cytoplasmic polyadenylation. To further explore this, in Chapter Four, mRNA polyadenylation was studied through the course of germination using a combination of transcriptional inhibitors and the modified sequencing protocol described in Chapter Two. 273 putative stored, unadenylated RNAs were identified. Gene ontology analysis revealed that genes whose products are involved in translation are overrepresented; these genes encode 21 60S- and 10 40S-ribosomal proteins. These results indicate that transcripts whose products are involved in translation might be a major component of the stored, unadenylated RNA pool and, more importantly, translation might be the first cellular process to be activated during seed germination.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Miami University, Dept. of Botany, 2008. / Title from second page of PDF document. Includes bibliographical references.

La chromatine est le support de l’information génétique et sa structure, ainsi que son activitétranscriptionnelle, peuvent être modulées par des modifications épigénétiques. Le maintien des marquesrépressives telles que la méthylation de l’ADN et des histones, hors du corps des gènes, est nécessairepour le bon développement de la plante. Chez Arabidopsis thaliana, le mutant sg1 présente des défautsdéveloppementaux sévères caractéristiques de mutants affectés dans des mécanismes épigénétiques. Nousavons montré que le phénotype de sg1 est causé par une hyperméthylation CHG et H3K9me2 dans denombreux gènes. En effet, SG1 contrôle la transcription de l’histone déméthylase IBM1 et lesmodifications de l’épigénome observées chez sg1 sont dues à une dérégulation de IBM1. Nous avonsidentifié sept protéines partenaires de SG1, dont certaines se lient aux marques chromatiniennes. Nousavons réalisé un crible suppresseur qui a permis d’identifier FPA, une protéine régulant lapolyadénylation de certains transcrits, comme acteur impliqué dans le contrôle des cibles de SG1, dontIBM1. Nos résultats montrent que le complexe SG1 régule la transcription de ses cibles en influençant,par un mécanisme encore inconnu, le choix du site de polyadénylation, en lien avec les marqueschromatiniennes présentes aux locus cibles. D’autre part, certaines épimutations induites par la mutationsg1 peuvent être maintenues pendant plusieurs générations. Pour rechercher un lien entre méthylation desgènes et conséquences phénotypiques, nous avons caractérisé des épimutations liées à un défaut dedéveloppement de la fleur et identifié un certain nombre de gènes candidats potentiellement responsablesdu phénotype. Les résultats obtenus au cours de ma thèse ont contribué à préciser le rôle joué par lecomplexe SG1 et à comprendre le lien entre celui-ci et les marques épigénétiques. / Chromatin is known to contain the genetic information and its structure and transcriptionalstate can be regulated by epigenetic modifications. Repressive marks such as DNA and histonesmethylation needs to be kept away from gene bodies to enable the proper development of the plant. InArabidopsis thaliana, sg1 mutants show a range of severe developmental defects similar to thoseobserved in mutants affected in epigenetic pathways. We have shown that sg1 mutant phenotype iscaused by an increase of CHG and H3K9me2 methylation in many gene bodies. Indeed, SG1 regulatesthe histone demethylase IBM1 transcription and the impairment observed in sg1 mutant epigenomes iscaused by IBM1 misregulation. We found seven proteins interacting with SG1, among which somepartners are able to bind chromatin marks. Through a suppressor screen we identified FPA, alreadyknown to regulate the polyadenylation of some transcripts, as a player involved in SG1 targetsregulation, including IBM1. Our results show that the SG1 complex regulates target genes transcriptionby affecting polyadenylation site choice, in a way that remains to be determined, in a chromatin marksdependent manner. We also found that some of the sg1-induced epimutations can be maintained throughseveral generations. To investigate the link between gene body methylation and phenotypicconsequences, we have characterized epimutations related to a defect in floral development andidentified some candidate genes potentially responsible for the floral phenotype. Thus, our resultscontributed to clarify the role of SG1 and to understand its connection with epigenetic marks.

No description available.

La plupart des gènes humains codants génèrent des transcrits alternatifs (isoformes) par épissage alternatif (alternative splicing, AS) et polyadénylation alternative (APA) en général dans la région codante et la région 3’ non traduite (3’UTR), respectivement. Le rôle de l’AS et la 3’UTR-APA est de plus en plus reconnu dans l’oncogenèse. En particulier, des réseaux d’AS connectant des facteurs d’épissage et des variants d’épissage ont récemment été identifiés. L’AS est aussi largement régulé par les agents anticancéreux génotoxiques, tel que la doxorubicine et le cisplatine (induisant des différents types de lésions sur l’ADN), qui sont régulièrementt utilisés dans les traitements du cancer du sein et du poumon non-à-petites-cellules (non-small-cell lung cancer, NSCLC), respectivement. Étant donné l’apparition fréquente de résistances aux chimiothérapies, comprendre les mécanismes sous-jacents est crucial pour surmonter ce problème clinique. Il existe des exemples d’évènements d’AS associés à la résistance aux agents anticancéreux, mais l’implication des facteurs d’épissage et des réseaux d’AS est très peu connue. De plus, une étude précédente a démontré que la doxorubicine réprime un grand groupe d’exon terminaux alternatifs (alternative last exons, ALE), qui correspondent à l’utilisation de sites de polyadénylation introniques (intronic polyadenylation, IPA). Les ALEs ont un rôle émergent dans le cancer, mais on ne sait encore que très peu sur leur régulation par d’autres agents anticancéreux, tel que le cisplatine. Afin de mieux comprendre le rôle des régulations d’AS et d’APA dans la réponse et la résistance cellulaire à la chimiothérapie, mon projet de thèse avait deux objectifs principaux : 1) déterminer l’étendue, les réseaux régulateurs, et les fonctions des régulations d’AS dans la résistance à la doxorubicine des cellules de cancer du sein, et 2) déterminer l’étendue, les mécanismes, et l’impact des régulations d’ALE en réponse au cisplatine dans des cellules de NSCLC. Dans la première partie, j’ai identifié par RNA-seq des milliers d’évènements d’AS et des dizaines de facteurs d’épissage régulés dans un modèle cellulaire de cancer du sein ER+ résistant à la doxorubicine. Par un miniscreen siARN, j’ai identifié deux facteurs, ZRANB2 et SYF2, impliqués dans la résistance à la doxorubicine. D’autres analyses RNA-seq ont révélé les évènements d’AS régulés par ces deux facteurs peu étudiés, ainsi que leur convergence vers l’exon 5 alternatif de l’oncogène ECT2. La déplétion de ZRANB2, SYF2, et du variant ECT2-ex5 réduit l’arrêt en phase S induit par la doxorubicine et la résistance des cellules. De plus, un niveau élevé d’inclusion de l’exon 5 d’ECT2 corrèle avec une mauvaise survie spécifiquement de patientes ER+ traitées par chimiothérapie. Dans la deuxième partie, j’ai identifié par 3’-seq que le traitement cisplatine (mais pas oxaliplatine) induit des ALEs/IPAs dans des milliers de gènes enrichis en gènes de cycle et de mort cellulaire. Cet effet est lié à une inhibition de la processivité de l’élongation dans les longs gènes. Une analyse 3’-seq sur polysomes m’a permis de montrer que ces régulations d’ALEs impactent le traductome, et a révélé un groupe d’isoformes particulièrement courtes peu efficacement traduites, dont un transcrit connu avec une fonction non-codante. En conclusion, j’ai pu identifier durant ma thèse un nouveau réseau d’AS impliqué dans la résistance à la doxorubicine des cancers du sein ER+, et une importante régulation d’ALEs impactant le traductome en réponse au cisplatine dans des cellules NSCLC. Ces travaux améliorent notre compréhension du rôle de l’AS et des ALE/IPA dans la réponse et la résistance cellulaire à la chimiothérapie anticancéreuse. Au plus long terme, les transcrits alternatifs et les régulateurs identifiés constituent des biomarqueurs candidats de chimiorésistance. / Most human coding genes generate alternative transcripts (isoforms) through alternative splicing (AS) and alternative polyadenylation (APA), most often within the coding region and the 3’ untranslated region (3’UTR), respectively. Both AS and 3’UTR-APA regulations have been increasingly involved in oncogenesis. In particular, AS networks connecting oncogenic splicing factors and oncogenic splicing variants have been recently identified. AS is also widely regulated by genotoxic anticancer drugs, like doxorubicin and cisplatin that induce different types of DNA lesions and are widely used in breast cancer and non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) therapy, respectively. Given the frequent occurrence of resistance to chemotherapy, understanding the underlying mechanisms is crucial to overcome this major issue. There are examples of AS events associated with anticancer drug resistance, but very little is known about the splicing factors and therefore the AS networks involved. In addition, a previous study showed that doxorubicin represses a large set of alternative last exons (ALE) corresponding to the use of intronic polyadenylation (IPA) sites. ALEs have an emerging role in cancer, but little is known about its regulation by other anticancer drugs, like cisplatin. In order to better understand the role of AS and APA regulation in cell response and resistance to chemotherapy, my PhD project had two main aims: 1) determine the extent, regulatory networks and function of AS regulation in breast cancer cell resistance to doxorubicin, and 2) determine the extent, mechanism and impact of ALE regulation in response to cisplatin in NSCLC cells. In the first part, I identified by RNA-seq thousands of AS events and dozens of splicing factors regulated in a cell model of acquired resistance to doxorubicin in ER+ breast cancer. Through an siRNA miniscreen, I found two splicing factors, ZRANB2 and SYF2, involved in doxorubicin resistance. Further RNA-seq analyses revealed the AS events regulated by depletion of these poorly characterized splicing factors, and their convergence on the alternative exon 5 of the oncogene ECT2. Depletion of ZRANB2, SYF2 and the ECT2-Ex5 variant reduces doxorubicin-induced S phase arrest and doxorubicin resistance. In addition, high inclusion levels of ECT2-Ex5 correlate with poor survival specifically in ER+ breast cancer treated with chemotherapy. In the second part, I found by 3’-seq that in NSCLC cell treatment with cisplatin (but not oxaliplatin) induces ALE/IPA in thousands of genes enriched in cell cycle and cell death. This effect is linked to an inhibition of transcription elongation processivity in long genes. 3’-seq analysis on polysomes showed that this ALE regulation impacts the translatome, and revealed a set of particularly short isoforms that were inefficiently translated, including a transcript with a non-coding function. In conclusion, during my thesis, I could identify a novel AS network involved in doxorubicin resistance in ER+ breast cancer, and widespread ALE regulation impacting the translatome in lung cancer cisplatin response. This work increases our understanding of AS and IPA role in cell response and resistance to anti-cancer chemotherapy. In the longer term, the identified alternative transcripts and regulators constitute candidate biomarkers of chemoresistance.

eIF3 and eIF4E are very important eukaryotic translation initiation factors. eIF3 is practically involved in every step of translation initiation, eIF4E is important mainly for its ability to bind the cap. Mammalian factor eIF3 consists of thirteen subunits, many subunits have a function apart from translation, such as in apoptosis and mitosis. It was proved that upregulated or downregulated expression of some subunits as well as upregulated expression of eIF4E is linked with different types of tumours and malignancies in human. In the first part of my work, I was examining the amount of transcripts of subunits eIF3a, b, d, e, f, g, h, i and j in cell lines which are used for study of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. I tried to find if there is a difference in the amount of trancripts between lines or between lines and control line in these subunits. According to experiments and statistical analysis, I proved increased amount of mRNA for eIF3b subunit in control cell line NC-NC in comparison with other used leukaemic cell line except from line NALM6. Other differences were not statistically important. In the second part of my work, I was analysing 3' UTR region of transcripts of eIF4E1 and utilising of polyadenylation signals in this trancript. I used the leukeamic cell lines again. The experiments clearly...