Studies were carried out to investigate the development of <I>Tipula oleracea </I>as a pest of winter cereals in north-east Scotland. Oilseed rape was identified as an important contributing factor to the appearance of this species in winter cereals. Laboratory experiments showed that <I>T. oleracea </I>preferred to egg-lay into oilseed rape crops rather than winter cereals. Field surveys established that larvae were present during the winter within the oilseed rape. Further experimentation showed that larvae reared on diets of oilseed rape, out-performed those fed on winter cereals, in terms of growth, successful development, and subsequent fecundity of emerging females. Studies on behaviour showed that adults emerging from within the oilseed rape in June were trapped by the oilseed rape canopy and that 'normal' dispersal was restricted. Flies could, however, move between plant stalks underneath the canopy, suggesting that mating and egg-laying could continue. It was confirmed that <I>T.oleracea, </I>usually had two flight periods in north-east Scotland, in June, and again in August-September. Population studies determined that adult emergence was variable, suggesting a useful survival strategy, should peak emergence coincide with poor conditions for larval survival. Studies on growth established that the life-cycle of <I>T. oleracea </I>was responsive to temperature and field studies showed that two generations could be completed during the summer months within the oilseed rape crop. It was also shown that <I>T. oleracea </I>had a high egg-laying capacity and had no requirement for a larval diapause. The population dynamics of this species are suited to the exploitation of short term habitats, such as those created within one year arable rotations.

This study investigated factors that have an influence on sexual activity and subsequent contraceptive use among school-going adolescent girls in Lesotho, focusing on the districts of Berea, Maseru and Mohale’s Hoek. The factors under investigation from a reproductive health survey included demographic variables (age, district, rural urban residence, class and religion), behavioural variables (drinking alcohol, boyfriend status), and attitude and knowledge variables (including attitude toward sex before marriage, contraceptive use before marriage, and communication with a boyfriend about sex). The methodology comprised a secondary analysis of the 1999 Adolescent Reproductive Health Survey of Lesotho. Bivariate analysis and binary logistic regression were used to establish if significant relationships existed between sexual activity and contraceptive use and the independent factors. A limitation of the study is that the survey instrument contained a limited set of indicators. Thus a number of theories of sexual decisionmaking were excluded from the conceptual framework. Prevalence of sexual activity was lower than expected. This research confirmed that the likelihood of adolescents being sexually active increases with age. A somewhat surprising result was that Catholic adolescents were more likely to become sexually active than adolescents of other religions. Adolescents who live in rural areas, as well as those with a boyfriend were also found to be more likely to become sexually active. Contraceptive use was higher for this Lesotho sample than has been reported for research from other African countries. Nevertheless, the proportion of adolescents not using contraceptives is argued to be a matter of concern. Adolescents in the lowest school class were least likely to use contraceptives, which suggests a lack of control over decisionmaking in this group. Contraceptive use was found to be lower among adolescents who were coerced into their first sexual experience. Adolescents from Mohale’s Hoek, designated the least developed area for this research, were the least likely to use contraceptives. Those adolescents who reported having a boyfriend were more likely to use contraceptives, suggesting a regular partner allows the adolescent some control over decision-making. A positive view of use of contraceptives before marriage was associated with higher likelihood of use. Somewhat surprisingly, use of alcohol was associated with higher likelihood of contraceptive use. The findings suggest adolescent girls can be grouped into different risk categories. Some practice abstinence and some who are sexually active appear to have control over sexual decision-making, specifically in being able to negotiate use of contraceptives. However, there is a group which is sexually active but does not use contraception. This group has a higher rate of coercion as the reasons for sexual activity. The analysis suggests a multi-dimensional set of factors explain sexual activity and associated contraceptive use (or non-use) and that beliefs and attitudes do not always predict an expected behaviour. Interventions should target the most at-risk group and must take into account that belief and attitude does not necessarily predict behaviour.A / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

The study is titled 'Determinants of contraceptive use among young women in Lesotho'. Caldwell and Caldwell (2002:80) assert, "The most serious problem with existing subSaharan family planning programs is their neglect at adolescents' needs". The main objective of the study is to investigate factors influencing the use of modern contraceptives among young women (15-24 years old) in Lesotho and to contribute towards improvements in health care services for adolescents. The study will examine the levels of contraceptive use among young people in Lesotho, and explore social and demographic factors that promote contraceptive use. The study is based on the data from 2004 Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey which is a representative sample. The study showed that young people have high knowledge of modern methods of contraceptive (knowledge ranked up to 91 percent) however use of methods is lower (ranked up to 44 percent). Traditional methods were the least known except for withdrawal which had a plausible percentage (64.7 percent). Most of sexually active young people have ever used contraceptives and injectables were the leading method while condoms were the most generally known. The study also showed that contraceptive use increases with age, level of education, wealth and discussion of family planning with partner. Results of the logistic regression analysis, however, showed unexpected results where adolescents' from the rural areas had a higher likelihood of using contraceptives than those from urban areas. Married young women had a high level of contraceptive use than those never married. Socio-cultural context hinders the establishment of reproductive programs on adolescents as their sexuality is attached to marriage and childbearing. It was recommended that intensive programs informing young people about their reproductive decision-making is needed. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

There has been a great deal of focus on young people and how they obtain information about reproductive health matters in the era of HIV/AIDS. However, there has very limited research on role of traditional initiation schools in the era of HIVIAIDS. In some parts of South Africa, young men and women continue to attend traditional initiation schools. The primary aim of these schools is to disseminate information about sexuality and other reproductive health matters in order to ensure that young people are well prepared for their future social growth, societal responsibilities and conjugal matters. Interviews were conducted with young people who had attended traditional initiation schools. The study was conducted in three villages in the Limpopo Province in South Africa where traditional initiations are widely practices. The study examines the impact of traditional initiation schools on adolescent's sexuality and reproductive health behaviour. The findings of the study show that traditional initiation schools have an important role to play in imparting information about sexuality and reproductive health. Traditional initiation schools prepare young people for the transition to adulthood. It is believed that these schools produce men who are independent, brave and courageous and women who are good mothers, wives and daughter-in-Iaws. However, some young men and women feel that they are more likely to engage in sexual activities soon after attending traditional initiation schools. This is because there is massive use of sexually explicit language during the process of initiation. Some young people feel that traditional initiation schools have contributed to the increase in sexual activity and as a result, negative reproductive health outcomes. However, the main conclusion is that traditional initiation schools have an important role to play to shaping the sexual and reproductive health behaviour of Venda young men and women. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2005.

The female condom has the potential to protect the health of millions of women at risk of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, as well as unwanted pregnancies. Increased use of the female condom and its positive impact on health is therefore substantial, particularly in the context of the growing feminisation of HIV/AIDS epidemic and high maternal mortality as well as high unmet need for contraception. However, female condoms in Swaziland do not seem to have attracted much attention. Using sex workers, this study aimed to explore the factors that facilitates and inhibits use of the female condom. Their main reasons for using the female condom were protection from sexually transmitted infections and pregnancy prevention. The qualitative interviews revealed that women like the female condom and prefer it over the male condom because it offers them more options and moreover they control its use. Other factors that facilitate its use include the fact that it can be inserted up to eight hours before intercourse and that it can be negotiated as a contraceptive. Partner objection, cultural and social beliefs, and limited availability served as barriers to the use of the device. Some women reported secret use, but a majority had to negotiate its use. Although women have to negotiate its use with their sexual partners, the fact that the female condom provides women with an independent method of protection that they can use on their own increases their ability to control their sexual health. The study indicates the potential benefits of female condom use in increasing protected sex acts. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

Female migration in South Africa has been on the increase over the years. This thesis attempts to look at the demographic and socio-economic factors that drive this increase using data from the Africa Centre Demographic Information System (ACDIS) during the period 2001 and 2008. Using data that provides for timing of events such as migration and births, the study analyses the time it took females to migrate. Migration was defined as having out-migrated the Demographic Surveillance Area (DSA) and never coming back. Migration levels were found to be high with 28 per cent of the females between 15-49 years of age out-migrating from the DSA. Models were created to explore the demographic and socio-economic factors controlling for other known determinant of migration. In the logistic regression, odds ratios showed that parity and childbearing status were important predicators of female migration. Females with four children were less likely to out-migrate the DSA (a 61 per cent less chance of migrating compared to females without children). Furthermore, pregnant females were not likely to migrate (a 45 per cent less chance of migrating compared to females who are not pregnant or breastfeeding). In a survival analysis, determinants of timing of migration showed that females with high parities had a higher survivorships to out-migration, compared to females who were pregnant. Hazard ratios also showed that females with four children are not likely to migrate compared to females with four children (a 7 per cent less hazard of migrating compared to females with no children). Age, marital status and educational attainment were also found to be predictors of female migration. Older females were less likely to migrate compared to younger females (females in the 44-49 age group had a 70 per cent less hazard of migrating compared to females in the 15-19 age group). Currently married and cohabiting females had a 29 per cent less hazard of migrating compared to never married females. Females with high educational attainment were more likely to migrate compared to females without education (an 18 per cent higher hazard of migrating compared to females without education). The timing of migration showed that pregnant females migrate after five years into the start of their pregnancy (date of conception). In conclusion, females with many children and females who are pregnant or breastfeeding are not likely to migrate. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

The thesis has considered an asset-based alternative to the conventional use of consumption or expenditure in defining well-being and poverty. The motivation for the study was to derive a measure of economic status by households in the absence of income or consumption data. This is particularly important for a country like Tanzania where consumption, expenditure and price data are either limited or unavailable. The thesis uses data from The Tanzania 2002 Population and Housing Census information on housing conditions and ownership of certain durable goods to construct an asset index. This index is a proxy for long-run household wealth. When tested for reliability the asset index was found to be robust, coherent and a good predictor for economic status among the "poor" and "non-poor". The study has revealed that with further research, poverty analysts in Tanzania may also use the household asset index as an explanatory or as a means of mapping welfare in the country. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2006.

In response to the high levels of child poverty, the government of South Africa introduced the Child Support Grant (CSG) in 1998. The grant, initially targeted children 6 years and younger. Over the years it has been extended to include children 15 years and younger. According to many studies the grant has proven to be beneficial. This study investigated the targeting of the CSG, if it indeed reaching the poor children via their caregivers. Care-givers, who reported receiving the CSG in KIDS 2004, were tracked to KIDS 1998 to determine their demographic and socioeconomic profile. A combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods was employed. The demographic and socio-economic characteristics of caregivers receiving and not receiving the CSG were analysed using cross tabs. Based on the means test income threshold, caregivers who are eligible and non-eligible for the CSG were identified. Multinomial regression was applied to identify the targeted, omitted and leaked CSG beneficiaries. These findings were augmented by the findings from the qualitative data. Based on the proxy indicators of poverty, the findings from the study have revealed that the CSG is being targeted at the poor, however there is evidence of both type I and type 11 errors of targeting present. Whilst type 11 error (leakage) is negligible, type I error of under-coverage is quite prominent. In essence the grant is reaching only some of its intended beneficiaries but not all of them. The study calls for government and its stakeholders to revisit the targeting design and implementation of the GCS. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

The main purpose of this study was two fold: to estimate mortality levels and to investigate socio-economic differentials in child mortality. Brass Indirect Techniques were used to estimate both child and adult mortality based on the 2001 Lesotho Demographic Survey. National estimates gave an IMR of 76 deaths per 1000 live births and a CMR of 30 deaths per 1000 live births. On the other hand, while the 1996 Lesotho Population Census showed life expectancy at birth as 59.5 years, the 2001 Survey gave an estimate of 55.4 years. Generally speaking, males are more prone to death in Lesotho than females. Infant mortality rate is estimated to be 69 deaths per 1000 live births for females and 84 deaths per 1000 live births for males. Results on child mortality further emphasised that male children are indeed at the risk of death than female children in Lesotho, estimated at 34 and 26 deaths per 1000 survivors at age 1 but dying before age 5 respectively. On the other hand, there is a strikingly huge gap between male and female adult mortality levels. Although, this study did not cover the details of why this might be the case, this difference might be a retlection of the impact of HIV/AIDS epidemic. The life expectancy at age 20 was estimated as 38.1 years for males and 48.7 years for females. On the other hand, the 2001 life expectancy at birth has been estimated as 56.7 years for females and 54.1 years for males. The difference between the life expectancy at birth for males and females is not huge, but this does not rule out evidence that longevity in Lesotho has declined and mortality still remains high. Analysis of differentials reveals that there exist socio-economic disparities measured using maternal variables. As was expected, there is an inverse relationship between improved education of the mother, housing, and sanitation and child mortality within households in Lesotho. Children residing in urban areas are better off in Lesotho compared with children residing in the rural areas. But, contrary to our expectation children that are raised in female-headed households that were assumed to be poor were found to be experiencing lower risks of dying when compared with children in maleheaded households. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

To better define the relationship between vascular calcification and bone mass/structure, we assessed abdominal aortic calcification (AAC), BMD, and bone microstructure in an age-stratified, random sample of 693 Rochester, MN, residents. Participants underwent QCT of the spine and hip and high-resolution pQCT (HRpQCT) of the radius to define volumetric BMD (vBMD) and microstructural parameters. AAC was quantified with the Agatston scoring method. In men, AAC correlated with lower vertebral trabecular and femoral neck vBMD (p < 0.001), but not after age or multivariable (age, body mass index, smoking status) adjustment. Separation into <50 and ≥50 yr showed this pattern only in the older men. BV/TV and Tb.Th inversely correlated with AAC in all men (p < 0.001), and Tb.Th remained significantly correlated after age adjustment (p < 0.05). Tb.N positively correlated with AAC in younger men (p < 0.001) but negatively correlated in older men (p < 0.001). The opposite was true with Tb.Sp (p = 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively). Lower Tb.N and higher Tb.Sp correlated with AAC in older men even after multivariable adjustment. Among all women and postmenopausal women, AAC correlated with lower vertebral and femoral neck vBMD (p < 0.001) but not after adjustment. Lower BV/TV and Tb.Th correlated with AAC (p = 0.03 and p = 0.04, respectively) in women, but not after adjustment. Our findings support an age-dependent association between AAC and vBMD. We also found that AAC correlates with specific bone microstructural parameters in older men, suggesting a possible common pathogenesis for vascular calcification and deterioration in bone structure. However, sex-specific differences exist.