This study investigates gender differences in South African self-employment, focusing particularly on earnings differences. The study identifies a large earnings gap in favour of men in self-employment, and it explores how the determinants of female and male returns to self-employment differ. Using a combination of descriptive and econometric methods and data from the Labour Force Surveys for 2001-2007, I find that female self-employment is more likely than male selfemployment to exhibit characteristics that are associated with low returns. The female self-employed tend to work part-time, be home-based, have own account enterprises and work in unskilled occupations in the informal sector. The data also suggest the presence of gender discrimination among the self-employed which may be the result of consumer discrimination and discrimination in access to credit or product markets. Focusing on the non-agricultural informal sector, I construct a more detailed gendered profile of the self-employed using a household survey from October 2005, namely the Survey of Employers and the Self-Employed. This survey captures a wealth of information on the self-employed and their businesses which is not available in the Labour Force Survey data. The analysis reveals that, in comparison to men, women are more likely to enter self-employment out of necessity, spend less starting a business, have poorer access to transport and report lower overheads. In light of the key constraints identified particularly by women in self-employment, the analysis suggests that assistance with marketing, better access to raw materials/supplies, provision of an alternative location, and better access to credit markets would help improve the profitability of their businesses. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

Aim: The practice of virginity testing was done from the early twentieth century in KwaZulu-Natal. Many regard virginity testing as the only way to revitalize what they view as lost cultural values. The aim of the study is to understand the reasons for undergoing virginity testing from the perspective of adolescent girls and boys. The study will explore the importance attached to virginity testing by adolescent girls and boys. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

Voluntary Counselling and Testing for HIV is an effective and important strategy for prevention, care and support. The study examines factors affecting utilization of VCT among pregnant women in Lesotho. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was employed. The quantitative part of the study utilized the 2004 Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey data and the qualitative study drew on data from focus group discussions among women attending antenatal clinics in Maseru and Leribe. The majority of pregnant women have never been tested for HIV/AIDS. Married women were less likely to go for VCT as compared with those who are not married. The study also established that place of residence, education and marital status were significantly associated with knowledge of HIV/AIDS and ever been tested for HIV. Stigma and discriminations and fear associated with HIV testing were highlighted as the main factors hindering the use of VCT services among pregnant women. However, knowing one’s status in order to access early treatment was the main reason for utilizing VCT. The VCT promotion programme for pregnant women in Lesotho has to focus on enhancing positive perception of VCT and alleviating perceived barriers related to the use of VCT services. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

Fertility is one of the major tenets of demography. Its importance lies in the determination of fertility trends in a country, in a specific time period. These statistical inferences of fertility play an imperative role in population policy formation and planning. Thus the importance of the measurement of fertility remains undisputed. Due to the significance of fertility, its measurement and its profound impact on societies, acknowledging and addressing the quality of fertility data is of great importance. This research study was conceived in response to the above concern. This study aims at addressing and providing insight into birth history data irregularities and determining interventions of working with this issue in the context of South Africa. Through secondary analysis (i.e. descriptive exploratory and comparative analysis) the study sought to firstly establish a demographic profile of women associated with inconsistent and inaccurate reporting of their birth histories. Secondly the research attempted to ascertain a relationship between the socio-economic statuses of individuals and retrospective reporting. A third objective was to note the sex-selectiveness of reporting (i.e. were more girls or boys reported or misreported on in the retrospective birth histories). The study has established that older, married women with some educational attainment, of rural areas from either the middle and lower income categories tend to misreport more frequently than their converse counterparts. Furthermore, a plausible relationship between the socio-economic statuses of individuals was observed. In terms of the sex-selectiveness of reporting, in general, boys were reported on more consistently than girls. However in certain cases, it was found that rural and middle income women reported accurately on girl children born alive and dead girl children. Recommendations made with respect to improve the quality of fertility data for include the proper training of enumerators and data capturers, quality control during data collection, testing of questionnaires, dealing with social, cultural and language barriers and the reinforcement of publicity campaigns for censuses and surveys. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

Background: The economic crisis that intensified in Zimbabwe between 2004 and 2009 could have exposed children under the age of 5 at an elevated risk of dying. The study investigates the determinants of childhood mortality in the country 4 years preceding the Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey of 2010-2011. Aims and Objectives: To establish child mortality determinants in Zimbabwe for the period 2006-2010 during the economic crisis. Methods: The study was a descriptive cross-sectional study which used data from the ZDHS 2010-2011. Using logistic regression and survival analysis, the study estimates the odds of dying and the survivorship probabilities for the birth cohort of 2006-2010. Results: The results indicate that children born to mothers age 40-49 had 88% higher chances of dying compared to children born to mothers in the age group 15-19 in a model that controls for age of mother and gender of child. Female children had 23% lower chances of dying compared to male children in a model that controls for gender and age of mother and was statistically significant at p-value<.05. Children born to mothers with higher levels of education had 16% lower chances of dying compared to children born to mothers with lower levels of education in a model that controls for maternal education, age of mother and gender of child. Children residing in households with higher socio-economic status had 12% lower chances of dying than children residing in households with lower socio-economic status in a model that controls for household socio-economic status, maternal education, age of mother and child’s gender. Children residing in rural areas had 17% lower chances of dying than children residing in urban areas in a model that controls for area of residence, household socio-economic status, maternal education, age of mother and gender of child. Children residing in some of the country’s poorest provinces namely Matabeleland North and South had 72% and 70% lower chances of dying respectively and both were statistically significant at p-value<.05 in a model that controls for province of residence, area of residence whether rural or urban, age of mother, maternal education, gender of child and household socio-economic status. Conclusions: The study established some of the determinants of childhood mortality during the country’s economic crisis. / Thesis (M.A.)--University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

In this study I explore the extent of computer literacy in South Africa, the correlates of computer literacy, and the relationship between computer literacy and labour market outcomes, namely the probability of employment and earnings among working-age South Africans. I use data from the first wave of the National Income Dynamics Panel survey of 2008, the first national household survey to collect information on computer skills. This study focuses on computer literacy as it has become an integral skill in today’s world of fast technological change. Understanding the unequal distribution of this form of human capital and the benefits it affords those in the labour market, is important particularly in South Africa, where there is a growing gap between the rich and the poor. I find that the distribution of computer skills in South Africa tends to mirror existing inequalities; females, Africans, those with low levels of schooling and those living outside of formal urban areas, for instance, are less likely to be computer literate. Further, I find that there is a positive association between computer literacy and the probability of employment among working-age adults, and a positive relationship between computer literacy and earnings among the employed in South Africa. These associations hold after controlling for a variety of demographic, human capital, family background, and in the case of the earnings regressions, job characteristics. The results also suggest that, as would be expected, those who are highly computer literate do better than those who have basic use skills. I also consider the limitations of my methods and the data I use, and the implications of the results for education and skills development policy in South Africa. / M.A. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 2013.

Introdução: A relação entre cães, gatos e seres humanos é antiga e ainda polêmica ,principalmente, nos aspectos referentes à questão da saúde. O desequilíbrio na população animal levou a excessos populacionais, que junto com a falta de saneamento e o crescimento desordenado das cidades, propiciaram a disseminação de zoonoses, principalmente, nas metrópoles. Ainda não é claro o risco dos animais à população humana frente aos benefícios possíveis. Justificativa: As freqüentes interações entre o homem e animais de estimação propiciam surgimento de novas zoonoses, tornando fundamental o conhecimento da dinâmica populacional de cães e gatos nas diferentes cidades brasileiras. A análise desses parâmetros, através de um inquérito domiciliar, abrirá um novo leque de opções, que permitirá novos conhecimentos técnicos e poderá ser um norteador de políticas públicas para essa área tão carente de informação. Objetivo: Analisar o perfil da população domiciliada de cães e correlacionando com as condições dos domicílios e do seu entorno e o nível sócio- econômico dos proprietários de animais. Material e Método: Foram utilizados dados de estudos de corte transversal e base populacional, com uso de questionários aplicados em entrevistas domiciliares. A área estudada foi o município de São Paulo, as entrevistas foram realizadas em 2003, como parte do “Inquérito de Saúde no Município de São Paulo – ISA - CAPITAL”. O presente projeto analisou o bloco de entrevistas que versa sobre a questão de cães e gatos nos domicílios. A análise geral dos dados foi realizada pelos softwares SPSS e STATA. Resultados: Em 42,77 % dos lares há presença de cães e/ou gatos. A média de idade dos cães nas residências é de 4,28 anos e a dos gatos é de 3,44 anos. Houve predominância de fêmeas na população felina e de machos na canina. Foi notada uma alta porcentagem, 90,13 % dos cães e 71,93% dos gatos, de vacinação contra a Raiva , nos últimos 12 meses. As clínicas particulares têm grande importância na vacinação contra a Raiva com 29,8 % dos cães vacinados em clínicas e 55,5 % dos gatos. Conclusões Finais: Há necessidade de um sistema de informação entre clínicas particulares e serviço público, principalmente no tocante à vacinação contra a raiva; maior número de estudos sobre a população felina na cidade; programas educativos para a população em geral e para os “cuidadores” de cães. / The relationship between dogs or cats with human is ancient and nevertheless controversy. The imbalance in the animal population drove to an overpopulation that allied to the lack of sanitation and disordered increase of the cities enabled the dissemination of zoonoses especially in the metropolises. It is still not clear the risk of the animals to the human population compared to the plausible benefits. Justification: The frequent interactions between man and domestic animals results in new zoonoses emergences, and in this context the information of dog and cats population dynamics in different Brazilian cities is crucial. The analysis of these parameters, through a health survey, will raise new options that could allow improvement in technical information. As an effect, this development could have a leading role in public politics for an area with such scarce knowledge.Objective: To analyze the profile of dogs an cats and its parameters related (vaccination, population dynamics), with the household and surroundings conditions by making use of a health survey. Materials and Methods: Transversal cut study and populational basis investigation with use of inquiries applied on household interviews were performed. The examined area was São Paulo city in 2003, as part of the “Health Survey in São Paulo municipality”- Inquérito de Saúde no Município de São Paulo – ISA - CAPITAL”. The present survey analyzed the segment of the interviews that comprised the information on the dogs and cats in the domiciles. The general data analysis was performed with the softwares SPSS and STATA. Results: Our results indicated that 42,77% of the domiciles have either dogs, cats or both. The average age of the dogs is 4,28 years and of the cats 3,44 years. There was a predominance of females in the canine population and males in the feline one. A high level of rabies vaccination was noticed (90,13 % of dogs and 71,93% of cats) in the last 12 months. The private practices were responsible for a significant participation in the rabies vaccination with 29,8% of the dogs and 55,5% of the cats. Final conclusions: There is a need for an information network between private practices and public service specially regarding vaccination against rabies, and also a requirement for more studies on the feline population of the city, as well as educational programs for the general population and the animal caretakers.

Indian population policy in the twentieth century was shaped by a blend of unique Indian concerns about population growth, legacies of British colonialism, and American foreign aid. This blend of influences resulted in the first national family planning program in the world. / Master of Arts

The primary objectives in this study were to gain a deep level of understanding of Kenyan women’s experiences of seeking abortion, both safe and unsafe, and to explore how social and legal issues impact their choices and the routes they take to obtain abortion. I explored the contexts and interpreted 49 in-depth narratives of women’s emic experiences of abortion in Mombasa city and the Kilifi district, Kenya, using a qualitative form of inquiry conducted between April and July 2005. Ethical Review Committees granted ethical clearance to this study. This emic work revealed gender inequity consistent with developing feminist theory and thus how women conceive gendered relationships is introduced in this analysis of women's narratives. The findings provide new insights as well as useful confirmatory knowledge, gleaned from detailed empirical evidence within Kenyan women’s social contexts. The women have revealed the evidence through their narratives; such an approach is largely missing in existing abortion literature. The prominent finding is that women do not abort motherhood, but they do abort particular pregnancies to protect motherhood; to avoid a difficult motherhood likely to compromise the quality of care they envisage for their potential and existing children. This includes ensuring the best nurturing environment, paternal and religious identity, social legitimacy. The abortion decision is difficult to make and thoroughly considered. The married women make a consultative decision with their ‘breadwinners’ having the upper hand. Legal barriers cannot bar abortion but entrench inequities in abortion care access, heighten secrecy, stigma, and hamper prompt comprehensive post abortion care seeking. Thus, financial resources, peers, geographical remoteness, and knowledge significantly influence the type of abortion accessed. Consequently, unsafe abortion threatens motherhood of the most vulnerable groups of women. The foremost recommendation is that public health law must ensure healthy, enjoyable, dignified motherhood for the women; hence safe early abortion (first trimester) must become accessible to alleviate existing health care inequities. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

Considerando-se a importância de Gracilaria birdiae e G. caudata como as principais agarófitas coletadas no nordeste brasileiro, e o conhecimento prévio sobre a diversidade fisiológica de suas populações, foram avaliadas as características fenológicas, a diversidade genética e os parâmetros relacionados à fotossíntese de populações selecionadas ao longo da costa brasileira. Durante a realização desse trabalho, foram amostradas quatro populações de Gracilaria birdiae de diferentes estados (RN, CE, PE e BA) e sete populações de G. caudata (RN, CE, PE, PB, BA, ES e SP). Tetrasporófitos foram encontrados em maior número em todas as populações amostradas. Em G. caudata, uma maior proporção de tetrasporófitos foi observada para as populações da região Nordeste, quando comparada às populações da região Sudeste. A ausência de plantas inférteis na maioria das populações amostradas, ou a baixa frequência (G. birdiae, RN, 4%; e G. caudata, RN e PE, 0,95% e SP, 8,57%), indicam a elevada fertilidade das espécies. A presença de gametófitos epífitas em tetrasporófitos foi observada em ambas espécies, entretanto, eles foram predominantes em G. caudata. Os parâmetros da fotossíntese foram avaliados a partir de dados coletados na natureza, com o uso da técnica de fluorescência in vivo da clorofila &alpha;. Nos locais onde ambas espécies ocorriam, observou-se que G. caudata apresentou valores elevados de Ik e inferiores de &alpha;ETR, quando comparada a G. birdiae, sugerindo que essa espécie apresente maior sensibilidade a altos níveis de irradiância. Essas respostas estão de acordo com a posição em que ocupam em relação ao nível de maré: G caudata, sempre numa posição superior em relação à G. birdiae. Tetrasporófitos e gametófitos femininos de ambas espécies do CE apresentaram valores elevados de &alpha;ETR, sugerindo que estes estão adaptados a irradiâncias elevadas e apresentam mecanismos capazes de evitar danos ao aparato fotossintetizante. A população de G. birdiae do RN apresentou uma diminuição das taxas fotossintetizantes em elevadas irradiâncias (até 500 µmol.fótons.m-2.s-1) atribuída a sua posição inferior no costão, quando comparada às populações da BA e PE, o que poderia indicar uma maior sensibilidade à irradiância em relação às demais. Não foram observadas diferenças nos valores de ETRmax entre as populações do RN e CE para ambas espécies, o que pode ser justificado pela proximidade geográfica. Tetrasporófitos de G. birdiae de coloração esverdeada do CE apresentaram maiores valores de ETRmax, quando comparados aos de coloração vermelha (selvagem), sugerindo uma maior habilidade de indivíduos de coloração esverdeada em utilizar elevadas irradiâncias para a manutenção de seu metabolismo. Essa característica deve representar uma vantagem adaptativa para G. birdiae, uma vez que a ocorrência de espécimes com capacidades fotossintetizantes distintas pode aumentar os espectros de aclimatação da espécie. A diversidade genética foi acessada por meio de marcadores plastidiais (rbcL), mitocondriais (Cox1 e cox2-3), nucleares (SSU) e microssatélites. Um total de 129 sequências de G. birdiae e G. caudata foram amplificadas para os marcadores Cox1, Cox2-3, rbcL e SSU. Sequências de Cox1 (633 pares de base (bp)) foram obtidas para 42 amostras de G. birdiae, e para apenas três amostras de G. caudata, devido a dificuldades de amplificação; uma divergência de 64 bp (10,25%) foi observada entre as espécies. Sequências de rbcL (1571 bp) e de SSU (1769 bp) foram obtidas para: i, uma amostra de G. birdiae da população do RN; e ii, duas amostras de G. caudata, uma do RN e outra da população do ES. Divergências de 61 bp (3,88%) e 4 bp (0,2%) foram observadas entre as espécies para as sequências de rbcL e SSU, respectivamente. Sequências de Cox2-3 (363 bp) foram obtidas para 33 amostras de G. birdiae, e para 48 amostras de G. caudata; uma divergência de 35 bp (8,97%) foi observada entre as espécies. Três haplótipos foram reconhecidos em G. birdiae para as sequências de Cox1 de 0-1 bp (0,15%), enquanto que 5 haplótipos para as sequências de Cox2-3, de 0-3 bp (0,82%), foram identificados em G. caudata. Uma média de sete marcadores tipo microssatélites foram desenvolvidos para G. birdiae e 12 para G. caudata, a partir das diferentes populações amostradas. Cinco loci de microssatélites amplificaram em ambas espécies, no entanto, foram observadas diferenças no tamanho e número de alelos de acordo com a espécie. Para a análise de microssatélites, foi avaliado um total de 248 amostras de G. birdiae (RN, 71; CE, 58; BA, 52; e PE, 67) e 424 de G. caudata (RN, 52; CE, 75; PB, 83; PE, 53; BA, 56; ES, 54; e SP, 51). Em G. birdiae, genótipos multilocus repetidos foram encontrados em três das quatro populações avaliadas (BA, CE e PE). Em G. caudata, essa repetição foi encontrada apenas para as populações da BA e SP, sendo que as demais apresentaram somente genótipos multilocus únicos (CE, RN, PB, PE e ES). As estimativas de diferenciação genética (Fst) em combinação com o Teste de Mantel indicaram a existência de uma correlação entre as distâncias genética e geográfica, tanto para G. birdiae como para G. caudata; entretanto, essa correlação mostrou-se linear apenas para G. caudata. A análise Bayesiana (programa Structure) demonstrou e existência de uma estruturação semelhante para as populações de G. birdiae e G. caudata. Os dois agrupamentos encontrados para ambas espécies têm como limite as populações dos Estados da Bahia e Pernambuco, indicando a existência de uma possível barreira genética não específica. Em síntese, análises moleculares corroboram dados de fotossíntese e indicam a maior variabilidade genética em G. caudata, quando comparada à G. birdiae. Essas análises corroboram ainda a hipótese da existência de uma variação genética relacionada a adaptações ambientais que resultam em alterações moleculares, fisiológicas e fenológicas / Considering the importance of Gracilaria birdiae and G. caudata as the main agarophytes collected in northeastern Brazil, and previous knowledge on the physiological diversity of their populations, phenological characteristics, parameters related to photosynthesis, and genetic diversity were evaluated in populations selected along the Brazilian coast. During this work, were sampled four populations of Gracilaria birdiae (RN, CE, PE, and BA) and seven of G. caudata (RN, CE, PE, PB, BA, ES, and SP). Tetrasporophytes were found in greater numbers in all sampled populations. In G. caudata, a higher proportion of tetrasporophytes was observed for the Northeast populations, compared to the Southeast populations. The absence of infertile plants in most of the sampled populations, or their low frequency (G. birdiae, RN, 4%, and G. caudata, RN and PE, 0.95%, and SP, 8.57%), indicate the high fertility of the species. The presence of epiphytic gametophytes of tetrasporophytes was observed in both species; however, they were prevalent in G. caudata. The photosynthetic parameters were evaluated from data collected in nature, using the in vivo chlorophyll &alpha; fluorescence technique. Where both species occurred, G. caudata presented high levels of Ik and lower &alpha; ETR, compared to G. birdiae, suggesting that this species may show greater sensitivity to high levels of irradiance. These responses are consistent with the position that they occupy relative to the shore: G caudata, always in a higher position, compared to G. birdiae. Tetrasporophytes and female gametophytes from the CE population of both species showed high levels of ?ETR, suggesting that these are adapted to high irradiance and have mechanisms to prevent damage to the photosynthetic apparatus. The RN population of G. birdiae presented a decrease in photosynthetic rates at high light intensities (up to 500 ?mol.fótons.m-2.s-1) attributed to its lower position on the shore, compared to the BA and PE populations, which could indicate a greater sensitivity to irradiance in relation to others. No differences were observed in ETRmax values between the RN and CE populations for both species, which can be explained by their geographical proximity. The greenish tetrasporophytes of G. birdiae from CE had higher ETRmax values, when compared to the wild-type (red), suggesting a greater ability of the greenish individuals to use high irradiance for maintaining their metabolism. This feature should be considered an adaptive advantage for G. birdiae, since the occurrence of specimens with different photosynthetic capacity may increase the acclimation spectra of the species. Genetic diversity was accessed through plastid markers (rbcL), mitochondrial (cox1 and cox2-3), nuclear (SSU) and microsatellites. A total of 129 sequences of G. birdiae and G. caudata were amplified for the markers cox1, cox2-3, rbcL and SSU. Cox1 sequences (633 base pairs (bp)) were amplified for 42 samples of G. birdiae, and only three samples of G. caudata, due to difficulties in amplification; a difference of 64 bp (10.25%) was observed between species. RbcL sequence (1571 bp) and SSU (1769 bp) were obtained for: i, a sample of G. birdiae from RN; and ii, two samples of G. caudata, one from RN and another from ES. Differences of 61 bp (3.88%) and 4 bp (0.2%) were observed among species for rbcL and SSU sequences, respectively. Cox2-3 sequences (363 bp) were obtained for 33 samples of G. birdiae and 48 samples of G. caudata; a difference of 35 bp (8.97%) was observed between species. Three haplotypes were found in G. birdiae for cox1 sequences, 0-1 bp (0.15%), while 5 haplotypes for were found for cox2-3 sequence of 0-3 bp (0.82%) in G. caudata. An average of seven microsatellites markers were developed for G. birdiae and 12 for G. caudata, from the different sampled populations. Five microsatellite loci amplified on both species; however, there were differences in the size and number of alleles according to species. For the microsatellite analysis, we evaluated a total of 248 samples of G. birdiae (RN, 71, CE, 58; BA, 52; and PE, 67), and 424 of G. caudata (RN, 52, CE, 75; PB, 83; PE, 53; BA, 56; ES, 54, and SP, 51). In G. birdiae, repeated multilocus genotypes were found in three of the four populations evaluated (BA, CE, and PE). In G. caudata, this repetition was found only for the BA and SP populations, the others presented only unique multilocus genotypes (CE, RN, PB, PE, and ES). Estimates of genetic differentiation (Fst) in combination with the Mantel Test indicated that there is a correlation between the genetic and geographic distances, for both G. birdiae and G. caudata; however, this correlation was shown to be linear only for G. caudata. The Bayesian analysis (Structure program) and demonstrated the existence of a similar structure to the populations of G. birdiae and G. caudata. The two groups found for both species have as limit the populations of BA and PE, indicating the existence of a possible non-specific genetic barrier. In summary, molecular analyses corroborate photosynthesis data and indicate a higher genetic variability in G. caudata, compared to G. birdiae. These analyzes confirm yet the hypothesis of a genetic variation related to environmental adaptations that result in molecular, physiological and phenological changes