Considerando-se a importância de Gracilaria birdiae e G. caudata como as principais agarófitas coletadas no nordeste brasileiro, e o conhecimento prévio sobre a diversidade fisiológica de suas populações, foram avaliadas as características fenológicas, a diversidade genética e os parâmetros relacionados à fotossíntese de populações selecionadas ao longo da costa brasileira. Durante a realização desse trabalho, foram amostradas quatro populações de Gracilaria birdiae de diferentes estados (RN, CE, PE e BA) e sete populações de G. caudata (RN, CE, PE, PB, BA, ES e SP). Tetrasporófitos foram encontrados em maior número em todas as populações amostradas. Em G. caudata, uma maior proporção de tetrasporófitos foi observada para as populações da região Nordeste, quando comparada às populações da região Sudeste. A ausência de plantas inférteis na maioria das populações amostradas, ou a baixa frequência (G. birdiae, RN, 4%; e G. caudata, RN e PE, 0,95% e SP, 8,57%), indicam a elevada fertilidade das espécies. A presença de gametófitos epífitas em tetrasporófitos foi observada em ambas espécies, entretanto, eles foram predominantes em G. caudata. Os parâmetros da fotossíntese foram avaliados a partir de dados coletados na natureza, com o uso da técnica de fluorescência in vivo da clorofila α. Nos locais onde ambas espécies ocorriam, observou-se que G. caudata apresentou valores elevados de Ik e inferiores de αETR, quando comparada a G. birdiae, sugerindo que essa espécie apresente maior sensibilidade a altos níveis de irradiância. Essas respostas estão de acordo com a posição em que ocupam em relação ao nível de maré: G caudata, sempre numa posição superior em relação à G. birdiae. Tetrasporófitos e gametófitos femininos de ambas espécies do CE apresentaram valores elevados de αETR, sugerindo que estes estão adaptados a irradiâncias elevadas e apresentam mecanismos capazes de evitar danos ao aparato fotossintetizante. A população de G. birdiae do RN apresentou uma diminuição das taxas fotossintetizantes em elevadas irradiâncias (até 500 µmol.fótons.m-2.s-1) atribuída a sua posição inferior no costão, quando comparada às populações da BA e PE, o que poderia indicar uma maior sensibilidade à irradiância em relação às demais. Não foram observadas diferenças nos valores de ETRmax entre as populações do RN e CE para ambas espécies, o que pode ser justificado pela proximidade geográfica. Tetrasporófitos de G. birdiae de coloração esverdeada do CE apresentaram maiores valores de ETRmax, quando comparados aos de coloração vermelha (selvagem), sugerindo uma maior habilidade de indivíduos de coloração esverdeada em utilizar elevadas irradiâncias para a manutenção de seu metabolismo. Essa característica deve representar uma vantagem adaptativa para G. birdiae, uma vez que a ocorrência de espécimes com capacidades fotossintetizantes distintas pode aumentar os espectros de aclimatação da espécie. A diversidade genética foi acessada por meio de marcadores plastidiais (rbcL), mitocondriais (Cox1 e cox2-3), nucleares (SSU) e microssatélites. Um total de 129 sequências de G. birdiae e G. caudata foram amplificadas para os marcadores Cox1, Cox2-3, rbcL e SSU. Sequências de Cox1 (633 pares de base (bp)) foram obtidas para 42 amostras de G. birdiae, e para apenas três amostras de G. caudata, devido a dificuldades de amplificação; uma divergência de 64 bp (10,25%) foi observada entre as espécies. Sequências de rbcL (1571 bp) e de SSU (1769 bp) foram obtidas para: i, uma amostra de G. birdiae da população do RN; e ii, duas amostras de G. caudata, uma do RN e outra da população do ES. Divergências de 61 bp (3,88%) e 4 bp (0,2%) foram observadas entre as espécies para as sequências de rbcL e SSU, respectivamente. Sequências de Cox2-3 (363 bp) foram obtidas para 33 amostras de G. birdiae, e para 48 amostras de G. caudata; uma divergência de 35 bp (8,97%) foi observada entre as espécies. Três haplótipos foram reconhecidos em G. birdiae para as sequências de Cox1 de 0-1 bp (0,15%), enquanto que 5 haplótipos para as sequências de Cox2-3, de 0-3 bp (0,82%), foram identificados em G. caudata. Uma média de sete marcadores tipo microssatélites foram desenvolvidos para G. birdiae e 12 para G. caudata, a partir das diferentes populações amostradas. Cinco loci de microssatélites amplificaram em ambas espécies, no entanto, foram observadas diferenças no tamanho e número de alelos de acordo com a espécie. Para a análise de microssatélites, foi avaliado um total de 248 amostras de G. birdiae (RN, 71; CE, 58; BA, 52; e PE, 67) e 424 de G. caudata (RN, 52; CE, 75; PB, 83; PE, 53; BA, 56; ES, 54; e SP, 51). Em G. birdiae, genótipos multilocus repetidos foram encontrados em três das quatro populações avaliadas (BA, CE e PE). Em G. caudata, essa repetição foi encontrada apenas para as populações da BA e SP, sendo que as demais apresentaram somente genótipos multilocus únicos (CE, RN, PB, PE e ES). As estimativas de diferenciação genética (Fst) em combinação com o Teste de Mantel indicaram a existência de uma correlação entre as distâncias genética e geográfica, tanto para G. birdiae como para G. caudata; entretanto, essa correlação mostrou-se linear apenas para G. caudata. A análise Bayesiana (programa Structure) demonstrou e existência de uma estruturação semelhante para as populações de G. birdiae e G. caudata. Os dois agrupamentos encontrados para ambas espécies têm como limite as populações dos Estados da Bahia e Pernambuco, indicando a existência de uma possível barreira genética não específica. Em síntese, análises moleculares corroboram dados de fotossíntese e indicam a maior variabilidade genética em G. caudata, quando comparada à G. birdiae. Essas análises corroboram ainda a hipótese da existência de uma variação genética relacionada a adaptações ambientais que resultam em alterações moleculares, fisiológicas e fenológicas / Considering the importance of Gracilaria birdiae and G. caudata as the main agarophytes collected in northeastern Brazil, and previous knowledge on the physiological diversity of their populations, phenological characteristics, parameters related to photosynthesis, and genetic diversity were evaluated in populations selected along the Brazilian coast. During this work, were sampled four populations of Gracilaria birdiae (RN, CE, PE, and BA) and seven of G. caudata (RN, CE, PE, PB, BA, ES, and SP). Tetrasporophytes were found in greater numbers in all sampled populations. In G. caudata, a higher proportion of tetrasporophytes was observed for the Northeast populations, compared to the Southeast populations. The absence of infertile plants in most of the sampled populations, or their low frequency (G. birdiae, RN, 4%, and G. caudata, RN and PE, 0.95%, and SP, 8.57%), indicate the high fertility of the species. The presence of epiphytic gametophytes of tetrasporophytes was observed in both species; however, they were prevalent in G. caudata. The photosynthetic parameters were evaluated from data collected in nature, using the in vivo chlorophyll α fluorescence technique. Where both species occurred, G. caudata presented high levels of Ik and lower α ETR, compared to G. birdiae, suggesting that this species may show greater sensitivity to high levels of irradiance. These responses are consistent with the position that they occupy relative to the shore: G caudata, always in a higher position, compared to G. birdiae. Tetrasporophytes and female gametophytes from the CE population of both species showed high levels of ?ETR, suggesting that these are adapted to high irradiance and have mechanisms to prevent damage to the photosynthetic apparatus. The RN population of G. birdiae presented a decrease in photosynthetic rates at high light intensities (up to 500 ?mol.fótons.m-2.s-1) attributed to its lower position on the shore, compared to the BA and PE populations, which could indicate a greater sensitivity to irradiance in relation to others. No differences were observed in ETRmax values between the RN and CE populations for both species, which can be explained by their geographical proximity. The greenish tetrasporophytes of G. birdiae from CE had higher ETRmax values, when compared to the wild-type (red), suggesting a greater ability of the greenish individuals to use high irradiance for maintaining their metabolism. This feature should be considered an adaptive advantage for G. birdiae, since the occurrence of specimens with different photosynthetic capacity may increase the acclimation spectra of the species. Genetic diversity was accessed through plastid markers (rbcL), mitochondrial (cox1 and cox2-3), nuclear (SSU) and microsatellites. A total of 129 sequences of G. birdiae and G. caudata were amplified for the markers cox1, cox2-3, rbcL and SSU. Cox1 sequences (633 base pairs (bp)) were amplified for 42 samples of G. birdiae, and only three samples of G. caudata, due to difficulties in amplification; a difference of 64 bp (10.25%) was observed between species. RbcL sequence (1571 bp) and SSU (1769 bp) were obtained for: i, a sample of G. birdiae from RN; and ii, two samples of G. caudata, one from RN and another from ES. Differences of 61 bp (3.88%) and 4 bp (0.2%) were observed among species for rbcL and SSU sequences, respectively. Cox2-3 sequences (363 bp) were obtained for 33 samples of G. birdiae and 48 samples of G. caudata; a difference of 35 bp (8.97%) was observed between species. Three haplotypes were found in G. birdiae for cox1 sequences, 0-1 bp (0.15%), while 5 haplotypes for were found for cox2-3 sequence of 0-3 bp (0.82%) in G. caudata. An average of seven microsatellites markers were developed for G. birdiae and 12 for G. caudata, from the different sampled populations. Five microsatellite loci amplified on both species; however, there were differences in the size and number of alleles according to species. For the microsatellite analysis, we evaluated a total of 248 samples of G. birdiae (RN, 71, CE, 58; BA, 52; and PE, 67), and 424 of G. caudata (RN, 52, CE, 75; PB, 83; PE, 53; BA, 56; ES, 54, and SP, 51). In G. birdiae, repeated multilocus genotypes were found in three of the four populations evaluated (BA, CE, and PE). In G. caudata, this repetition was found only for the BA and SP populations, the others presented only unique multilocus genotypes (CE, RN, PB, PE, and ES). Estimates of genetic differentiation (Fst) in combination with the Mantel Test indicated that there is a correlation between the genetic and geographic distances, for both G. birdiae and G. caudata; however, this correlation was shown to be linear only for G. caudata. The Bayesian analysis (Structure program) and demonstrated the existence of a similar structure to the populations of G. birdiae and G. caudata. The two groups found for both species have as limit the populations of BA and PE, indicating the existence of a possible non-specific genetic barrier. In summary, molecular analyses corroborate photosynthesis data and indicate a higher genetic variability in G. caudata, compared to G. birdiae. These analyzes confirm yet the hypothesis of a genetic variation related to environmental adaptations that result in molecular, physiological and phenological changes

Not much is known about young fathers in South Africa; as a result, there is a lack of literature that focuses on young fathers and fatherhood in South Africa. However, there is a growing body of international literature about young fathers and their perceptions of fatherhood, even though this is mostly concentrated in the global north, especially the United States. The overall aim of the study was to explore the perspectives and experiences of early fatherhood among 'Black' university students in Durban. This was done by engaging young black men that are fathers. A qualitative approach was adopted in order to give the respondents freedom to discuss their experiences at length. The sample consisted of seven respondents that are Black, fulltime students and aged 18-25. Young fathers who are 'Black' were chosen purposefully because the statistics show that the fet1ility rate of young Black people is significantly high when compared to young people of other race groups in South Africa. This study found that all the young fathers that participated in this study had not intended to have children, and were therefore not ready to become fathers when their partners told them that they were pregnant. Furthermore, it was found that all the young fathers that pa11icipated in this study did not live with their children. Instead, the children lived with their mothers. There were various reasons given for this arrangement, but the most dominant one was that it was because the young fathers had not paid damages to their partners' families, as cultural practices dictate, for having impregnated them. Most young fathers that participated in this study are no longer intimately involved with the mothers of their children. However, they are on good terms with them and they have managed to maintain civil relationships with them in order to have access to their children. This study found that modem contraceptive knowledge is high amongst young fathers, although the usage is inconsistent. Finally, this study found that young fathers equate fatherhood to responsibility, providing financially, giving emotional support, and spending quality time with their children. However, there was a feeling of inadequacy and dissatisfaction amongst young fathers because of hindrances that prevent them from executing their roles of fatherhood effectively. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

This dissertation provides a review of the nature of urban environment and livelihoods in an attempt to improve understanding and awareness of challenges facing cities and towns in developing countries, in particular their impact on poor women and children. Some urpan challenges are context-based and cultural, but there are special commonalities found in most developing countries like crime and unhealthy environment per se, that exacerbate poor people's vulnerability. Women and children are identified in series of research to be the most poverty stricken and vulnerable; hence prone to shocks. It is therefore important that factors such as urban poverty that increase their marginalization be explicitly identified if the global reduction of poverty is to be maintained. However, given the increasing global poverty levels and enduring children's malnutrition levels, it is clear that major factors that determine livelihoods such as income, food security and health are still inadequate to meet the challenges that urban areas offer today. Other than the material wealth, complex urban livelihoods have amongst other things, reduced provision of other socio-psychological factors such as caregiving, which are critical for children's development and nutrition. Urban livelihoods force women to participate whole-heartedly in the wage labour. On one hand, this incidence may lead to household's food security, children's nutrition, women's empowerment (socially, economically and psychologically) and optimisation of their autonomy. But on the other hand this can result into reduced women's devotedness and effectiveness to child caring, thereby resulting into child malnutrition and child poverty. It is therefore the aim of this research study to demonstrate that while wage income can be a critical aspect of children's nutrition in urban areas, without adequate caregiving behaviours our goal of reducing children malnutrition is no where near to be reached. This research has used qualitative data owing to the information needed, which is primarily based on opinions, beliefs and perceptions about children's health and nutrition status. The analysis showed that demographic and socio-economic status in the community and household levels are crucial in determining women's ability to sustainable food security, child care and nutrition. Other factors identified as crucial in child's nutritional status were health, education and age of a mothers and people who provide care to children when mothers are at work. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2004.

Fertility among young people has increased globally and is a major concern, particularly in developing countries. Sub-Saharan Africa is a region that is greatly affected by poverty; HIV/AIDS and an increasing population. Young people are engaging in unprotected sex and this not only increases their risk of having an unplanned pregnancy, but also increases the risk of them contracting HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. In Southern Africa, pregnancy rates among young people are high even though total fertility rates have declined. Many interventions have been implemented to directly address this issue; however, it is perplexing as to why pregnancy rates among young people are so high. Studies have indicated that there are many factors that influence unplanned pregnancy rates among young people. The aim of this dissertation is to understand the reasons for high fertility rates among young people in South Africa. This study draws on qualitative methodology using in-depth interviews with 20 female students at a tertiary institution in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. Students interviewed presented a number of reasons for the high levels of pregnancy among young people. The study findings highlighted that young women have knowledge of contraception and are aware of the importance of contraception in preventing an unplanned pregnancy; however, contraception is being practiced inconsistently and incorrectly. Students are more afraid of the risk of an unplanned pregnancy than HIV/AIDS. Poor interpersonal relations with health service providers were perceived as a common barrier preventing young women from accessing contraception at the local clinics. Furthermore, the interviews suggest that peers exert an enormous influence over young people. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest number of people living with HIV and AIDS in the world. Several studies that were carried out suggest that there is a negative impact of HIV and AIDS on the health sector. This impacts directly on health care providers as they are the first point of contact for ill people. This study seeks to explore the impact of HIV and AIDS on health care provision looking at the perception of health care providers. Qualitative methods were used for collecting data from the health care providers. Two focus group discussions were conducted and ten in-depth interviews were conducted in three health care facilities in Lesotho. Audio tapes were used to record the interviews and thematic analysis was utilized to analyse the data. The results showed that the workload has increased due the increased number of people who seek health care services. There is also a shortage of staff in facilities which leads to health workers having to work extra hours. The study further indicated that there is lack of knowledge among health care providers regarding the management of HIV and AIDS. Consequently, the health care providers fear the risk of contracting HIV from their patients. In addition, the results revealed that the poor infrastructure at the facilities hinder health care providers from performing their duties effectively. The other concern was the lack of support structures from the management. Furthermore, stigma and discrimination emerged as the major problems for providers as work and home. As a result, the health care providers are stressed and suffered from burnout. There is a need for further research on the impact of HIV and AIDS on health providers. Government should take more responsibility for encouraging students to enroll at health training institutes. The curriculum should include an emphasis on HIV and AIDS and workshops on HIV and AIDS should be held. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

The aim of this study was to investigate outcomes of approaches used to mitigate the negative impacts of HIV and AIDS at workplaces in Lesotho using Thetsane Industrial Area as a case study. Garment industries in Lesotho are faced with a serious threat due to the HIV and AIDS prevalence in the country. A huge number of the labour force is leaving firms due to increased morbidity and mortality associated with HIV and AIDS. In view of this, this study investigated approaches used in managing HIV and AIDS in the workplace. In order to optimize the accuracy of the research results, a triangulation research method was utilized. The results indicate production levels to have improved since the advent of the Apparel Lesotho Alliance to Fight AIDS (ALAFA). The findings suggest ALAFA to have taken over the responsibility of HIV and AIDS prevention and management, especially in the garment industries, providing HIV and AIDS victims with all the necessary services needed to keep HIV and AIDS under control. These findings therefore suggest overdependence on ALAFA by the garment industries for HIV and AIDS management. The findings also imply that garment industries had no resources in the form of human capital specializing in the knowledge of HIV and AIDS management from the individual garment industries. Despite the fact that HIV and AIDS still spreads at an alarming rate, the larger implications of this research’s findings, especially relating to the serious challenge faced by the garment industries of losing their labour force to HIV and AIDS, is that the pandemic has lately become manageable given that there are now ARVs and ART to be used as treatment by HIV and AIDS victims. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

This dissertation explores the livelihood activities of Durban's African migrant street traders. The study also seeks to gain insight into the challenges that confront them as well as the perceptions that local street traders have of them. The researcher argues that migrant street traders make a contribution towards the economic development of the city. Migrant street traders are attracted to Durban because of the economic opportunities that the city offers as well as the fact that it has a lower crime rate than cities such as Johannesburg. The concept of livelihood strategy was used to develop the theoretical framework that guides the research. The study makes use of the qualitative research method. Fifteen in-depth interviews were conducted with migrant and local street traders, who were a mixture of male and female. Of the fifteen interviewees, ten were migrant traders (five females and five males) and five were local street traders (three females and two males). The research was conducted in the Central Business District (CBD) in the vicinity of the Workshop Shopping Centre. The findings of the study suggest that migrants make an economic contribution (albeit not a substantial one) to the development of the city. Some of the local street traders recognise this contribution while others do not. Migrant street traders encounter difficulties in accessing the finance and capital necessary to start their entrepreneurial businesses. The other major problems experienced by the migrant traders in the city are to do with crime, the metropolitan police, local government officials, securing of a suitable accommodation, and accessing trading sites, education and healthcare. The research concludes by recommending that the business-training sessions that are arranged by the municipality of local street traders be open to migrant street traders as well. Local communities should also be educated about the positive role of the migrants in the city. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

Sexual and reproductive health care have become key priorities both within developing and developed nations. Young people have been identified as particularly vulnerable to negative health outcomes. South Africa is one such example of a country that presently faces significant challenges in addressing the unmet sexual and reproductive health needs of young people. With the enormous burden of reproductive health problems and the accelerating HIV epidemic, the provision of sexual and reproductive health services remains a challenge. Though various studies highlight the importance of comprehensive services targeted at youth, there is a lack of adequate research in evaluating the extent to which health services are addressing the health needs of clients. This study aimed to address this gap by examining a health care facility for students at one of the largest tertiary institutions in KwaZulu-Natal. The core objective was to determine the extent to which the health services are responding to the sexual and reproductive needs of young people by, exploring the experiences and perspectives of service providers and young men and women in relation to comprehensive, youth-friendly sexual and reproductive health care. This was assessed using a revised version of the Bruce-Jain quality of care framework. Information for this study was obtained using quantitative and qualitative data collection methods including: an inventory of the facility and services, in-depth interviews with staff and exit interviews with 200 clients aged 18 to 24 years. The findings of the study reveal that logistical constraints hindered effective implementation of comprehensive, youth-friendly services by providers. Providers missed opportunities to provide clients with much needed information and services due to staff shortage, client overload, lack of infrastructure, and poor continuity mechanisms. HIV, STIs and unwanted pregnancies were some of the most important health issues among young people visiting the health facility. Very few young men utilised the services. Some of the key findings were that clients continue to experience barriers in interpersonal relations while many expressed the need for more information from providers. In addition, many young women still have an unmet need for contraception. Policy makers need to incorporate the needs of young clients within sexual and reproductive health initiatives. Ideally young people should be involved in the design and implementation process of comprehensive, youth-friendly health initiatives. This would form a platform for addressing the barriers that hinder health service provision. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

Unintended pregnancy has been the subject of considerable research in Lesotho. Lack of priority placed on young people’s sexuality and reproductive health was found to be a major factor exacerbating the rate of unintended pregnancy in the country. The study draws on qualitative data collected from in-depth interviews with university students in Lesotho. In total, 15 in-depth interviews were conducted with 10 women and 5 men. The findings of the study show that unsafe sex coupled with low contraceptive use are the leading causes of unintended pregnancy among young women in Lesotho. Evidence suggests that even though contraceptive prevalence is noticeably low, modern contraceptive methods have a greater potential than other means for reducing the prevalence of unintended pregnancy. The findings of the study also suggest that there is a considerable gender differences in sexual behaviour; males are more likely than females to experience earlier sexual onset, have more sexual partners and to practise unsafe sex. This study recommends that increasing contraceptive prevalence among young people will lead to better reproductive health outcomes. The study also suggests that family planning services should be more male friendly because men play a major role in decision making, and have a great influence on their partners’ decisions to use contraceptives. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

The study examined correlates of HIV perceived risks and protective strategies among adolescents in rural Malawi i.e. whether there was an association between socio demographic characteristics of adolescents and subsequent HIV perceived risks and protective strategies. Age at sexual debut is a variable of interest in this study. The objectives were to investigate whether age at first sexual intercourse does influence adolescents’ individual’s risk perceptions of HIV and protective strategies, i.e. does age at first sex set a precedence in the thinking of adolescentswith regards HIV risks and protective strategies such as condom use. Data: This study uses cross sectional data from Wave 3 of a wider study, the Malawi Diffusion and Ideational Change Project (MDICP).The MDICP is a joint collaboration between researchers from the Population Studies Centre at the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Malawi‘s College of Medicine and Chancellor College. In this study, a multiple regression analysis on the cross sectional data from the 2004 wave 3of the Malawi Diffusion and Ideational Change Project was done. The focus of this study is on the relationship between age at first sexual intercourse and the individual‘s perception of risk of HIV/AIDS and protective strategies, it examines if there is an association between the two factors. Descriptive analysis: Descriptive statistics to obtain the frequencies of the main variables of interest such as the background characteristics of respondents (gender, marital status, mean age at sexual debut, education, economic status of household) were computed in order to better understand the population under study. Multivariate Analysis: Three separate models were employed; two multinomial regression analysis measuring worry and likelihood of infection against socio demographic variables and a binary logistic regression measuring condom use and the socio demographic variables. Relative Risk Ratios were used to interpret the multinomial logistic regression output while odds ratios were used to interpret the logistic output. Results: Consistent with existing literature, results indicate that early age at first sex is a predictor of HIV risk perceptions and protective strategies. Age at first sex does set a precedence in the future thinking of adolescents with regards to how they perceive HIV risks, as well as how they perceive protective strategies against HIV-particularly condom use. This study confirms that age at first sex alongside with other socio demographic variables are significantly associated with HIV risk perceptions HIV and condom use, while other factors may matter, such as gender, region, HIV knowledge, religion or educational level. Limitations: The information on age at first sexual encounter was based exclusively on respondent’s self–reports. This data collection method often has limitations that are attributed to the tendency for people to under-report socially unacceptable behaviours (e.g. having multiple sex partners) and to over-report socially acceptable behavior. The other limitation is that the study lacks longitudinal data to allow a more in-depth analysis of trends in HIV/AIDS-related indicators. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.