The topic of this doctoral dissertation is changes and shifts in cognitive domains during the period when young adults are enrolled in university education. This period in cognitive development is marked by the concept of postformal thinking related to Piaget's theory of cognitive development. In this thesis, the main focus is on the postformal thinking operations conceptualized by Jan D. Sinnott. The theoretical part is dedicated to two main themes: higher university education period and cognitive development. The current situation of mass tertiary education in the Czech Republic is presented as well as its impact on the student structure and students themselves. This time in life during which a young adult attends university education is described through the viewpoint of developmental psychology theorists and the concept of emerging adulthood by Jeffrey J. Arnett. In the cognitive development domain, Jean Piaget's theory is mentioned and followed by a showcase of a line of thought of his successors regarding the theory of postformal development. For the purposes of research presented in this thesis, Jan D. Sinnott's Theory of Relativistic Postformal Thought was used as the basic framework. The research part of this thesis was carried out as a mixed two-part design. With this approach, a deeper...

In recent years, empirical research has consistently supported an association between susceptibility to affective illness and creativity at the level of eminent achievement and at the non-eminent, or "everyday creativity" level. Although this research has provided greater evidence for the existence of this link, it has simultaneously unearthed more questions about how and why such an association exists. The purpose of this research was twofold: first, to provide further analysis of the nature of the relationship between hypomanic traits and creativity by employing a longitudinal study to determine the extent to which inter-individual differences over time in creativity are predicted by hypomanic traits. Second, the purpose of the cross-sectional analysis in the present study was to further determine how developmental components such as age and expertise may help unravel the ways in which hypomanic traits contribute to creativity and to further describe inter-individual differences among these variables. The first hypothesis, which proposed that the direction of the relationship between hypomanic traits and creativity could be predicted, was not supported by these results. The second research hypothesis was partially supported: hypomanic traits predict creativity in the combined adolescent and older adult samples. However, upon further examination of the regression analyses, the data indicate that the relationship between hypomanic traits and creativity is also influenced by age and developmental factors. Furthermore, the way in which the relationship is influenced by these other factors depends on the way in which the creativity construct is measured (e.g., process or personality. The findings suggest that the antecedents of creativity may differ between adolescents and older adults. In adolescents, the hypomanic traits measure is the only variable that predicts creative personality and creative process, while expertise is the only variable to predict creative personality and creative process among the older adults in this study. It appears expertise significantly and uniquely contributes to at least two areas of creativity in older adults, while hypomanic traits significantly and uniquely contributes to the same two areas of creativity in adolescents. Implications of these findings and limitations to this study are discussed.

本研究目的在探討後形式思考的發展，以及後形式思考與人際關係之容忍性、同理心、自我揭露、自主性之關係。受試為644位分佈於青年期後期至成人期(18至80歲)的受試，以問卷法進行研究。資料分析採用百分比差異性考驗與單因子變異數分析。結果發現：1. 在後形式思考的發展方面，青年期後期屬於形式性思考組的百分比高於早成人期與中、老年期屬於於形式性思考組的百分比。早成人期屬於相對性思考組的百分比高於中、老年期屬於相對性思考組的百分比。中、老年期屬於辯証性思考組的百分比高於青年期後期與早成人期屬於辯証性思考組的百分比。綜合三個認知思考組與各年齡組之關係，相對性思考的發展時機比形式性思考要晚，辯証性思考的發展時機比相對性思考要晚。2. 在後形式思考與人際關係之「容忍性」、「同理心」、「自我揭露」、「自主性」之關係方面：(1)後形式思考組的「容忍性」高於形式性思考組的「容忍性」；辯証性思考組的「容忍性」高於相對性思考組的「容忍性」；相對性思考組的「容忍性」高於形式性思考組的「容忍性」。辯証性思考組在容忍性之「統整差異」得分高於形式性思考組與相對性思考組的得分；(2)後形式思考組的「同理心」高於形式性思考組的「同理心」；辯証性思考組的「同理心」高於相對性思考組的「同理心」；相對性思考組的「同理心」高於形式性思考組的「同理心」；(3)後形式思考組的「自我揭露」高於形式性思考組的「自我揭露」；辯証性思考組的「自我揭露」高於形式性思考組與相對性思考組的「自我揭露」；相對性思考組與形式性思考組的「自我揭露」沒有顯著差異；(4)後形式思考組的「自主性」高於形式性思考組的「自主性」；辯証性思考組的「自主性」高於形式性思考組與相對性思考組的「自主性」；相對性思考組與形式性思考組的「自主性」沒有顯著差異。辯証性思考組在「自主性」之相互依賴性高於形式性思考組與相對性思考組的相互依賴性。 本研究根據研究結果討論這些發現的可能原因，並提出後形式思考未來的研究建議，以及研究結果在人際關係實際應用上的啟示。 壹、緒論　　　　　　　　　　　 　　 　 　　　 01 一、 研究動機 01 二、 研究目的 10 三、 名詞釋義 11 (一) 認知發展範疇 11 (二) 人際關係範疇 12 貳、文獻探討 15 一、 後形式思考的本質 15 (一) 後形式思考的特徵 15 (二) 相對性思考 22 (三) 辯証性思考 28 (四) 相對性思考與辯証性思考的比較 34 二、 後形式思考的發展 38 三、人際關係的發展 45 (一) 人際關係的重要性 45 (二) 人際關係發展的重要向度 46 四、 後形式運思與人際關係之容忍性、同理心、自我揭露、自主性 之關係 53 (一) 後形式思考與人際關係的本質 53 (二)後形式思考與人際關係之「容忍性」、「同理心」、「自我揭露」、「自主性」 之關係 55 參、研究方法 73 一、 研究架構 73 二、 研究問題與假設 74 三、 研究樣本 76 四、 研究工具 78 (一) 後形式思考的測量 78 (二) 「容忍性」的測量 91 (三) 「同理心」的測量 93 (四) 「自我揭露」的測量 97 (五) 「自主性」的測量 104 五、資料蒐集與樣本來源 111 肆、研究結果 114 一、後形式思考的發展 118 二、後形式思考與人際關係之容忍性、同理心、自我揭露、自主性 之關係 125 (一)形式性思考與後形式思考在「容忍性」的差異 126 (二)形式性思考與後形式思考在「同理心」的差異 129 (三)形式性思考與後形式思考在「自我揭露」的差異 131 (四)形式性思考與後形式思考在「自主性」的差異 133 伍、結果、討論與建議 107 一、結果 107 (一)後形式思考的發展 142 (二)後形式思考與人際關係之「容忍性」、「同理心」、「自我揭露」、 「自主性」之關係 142 二、討論 143 (一)後形式思考的發展 143 (二)後形式思考與人際關係之「容忍性」、「同理心」、「自我揭露」、 「自主性」之關係 114 (三)整體性發展觀的綜合討論 153 三、建議 157 (一)研究的測量工具 157 (二)研究設計的限制與建議 167 (三)未來的研究方向 168 (四)實際應用的啟示 174 參考文獻 181 附錄 197 附錄一：信念量表 197 附錄二：人際關係問卷(A) 205 附錄三：人際關係與信念問卷(A) 215 / The purpose of this study was to investigate the development of postformal thinking and the relationships between postformal thinking and the tolerance、empathy、self-disclosure、autonomy of interpersonal relations. Subjects were 644, ranging from late adolescence to adulthood (age from 18 to 80 years). Questionnaire was used as the research method. The testing of differences between two percentages and one-way ANOVA were used for data analysis. The results were : 1. In the development of postformal thinking, the percentage of formalistic thinker in late adolescence group (18-23 years) was higher than early adulthood groups' (24-40 years) and middle、late adulthood groups' (41-80 years), the percentage of relativistic thinker in early adulthood group was higher than middle、late adulthood groups', the percentage of dialectical thinker in middle、late adulthood group was higher than late adolescence group's and early adulthood group's. According to the findings of the relationships between the cognitive thinking groups and age groups, the developmental timing of relativistic thinking was later than the timing of formalistic thinking, the developmental timing of dialectical thinking was later than the timing of relativistic thinking. 2. In the findings of the relationships between the postformal thinking and the tolerance、empathy、self-disclosure、autonomy of interpersonal relations: (1) The tolerance of the postformal thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's, the tolerance of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's, the tolerance of the relativistic thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's. The score of integration differences of tolerance of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's and the formalistic thinking group's. (2) The empathy of the postformal thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's, the empathy of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's, the empathy of the relativistic thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's. (3) The self-disclosure of the postformal thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's, the self-disclosure of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's and the formalistic thinking group's. (4) The autonomy of the the postformal thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's, the autonomy of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's and the formalistic thinking group's. The interdependence of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's and the formalistic thinking group's. The possible reasons of the above findings were discussed in the paper. According to these findings, suggestions of future research about postformal thinking and implications of practical applications in interpersonal relations were mentioned.