共一冊，七萬字，分五章： 第一章：緒論 第一節 研究動機與目的 一、同理心研究的重要性 二、同理心的年級和性別差異之研究爭論 三、同理心研究與文化背景的考慮 第二節 研究問題與假設 一、同理心含有那些不同的因素？各有何涵義？ 二、從青少年後期到成年期？同理心發展型態如何？ 三、性別、性別角色與同理心的關係如何？ 四、人情取向的因素如何？各與同理心有何關係？ 第三節 重要名詞定義 第二章：文獻探討 第一節 同理心概念的演變及其實證研究 第二節 性別、性別角色與同理心的關係 第三節 人情取向的涵義及其與同理心的關係 第四節 年級對性別角色、人情取向與同理心的影響 第三章：研究方法與工具 第一節 研究樣本：高中生、大學生共六百五十人 第二節 研究工具：同理心量表、性別角色量表、人情取向問卷 第四章：研究結果 第一節 年級、性別、性別角色與同理心：以典型相關及多變量變異數分析統計分析 第二節 年級、性別、人情取向與同理心：以典型相關進行分析 第三節 性別角色、人情取向與同理心的關係：以典型相關進行分析 第五章：討論與建議 附錄一 同理心量表之信度與效度研究：因素分析法進行

本論文首先闡釋同理心在心理學上使用以及其侷限，而藉由現象學無預設的方式來奠基心理學理論的不足，主要透過馬克思‧謝勒的同情感理論，剖析其中對於同情感的描述，提供當代對於同情或是同理的疑惑新的解決之道，為未來人文療癒之路作一鋪成。 / This thesis first explains the use of empathy in psychology and its limitations. Through the phenomenological approach of presuppositions to be the foundation of the psychological theory, mainly by the Max Scheler’s theory of sympathy. Analyzed the differences between sympathy and empathy. To provide a new solution to the doubts about sympathy and empathy that people know how to use in the future. Especially offer the new way of Humanities Therapy open the bright horizon for us.

本研究的主要目的在探討下列的關系： １、「特質生氣」、生氣表達是否因性別不同而有所差異？ ２、「特質生氣」和生氣表達有何關系？ ３、自尊與「特質生氣」、生氣表達有何關係？ ４、武斷與「特質生氣」、生氣表達有何關係？ ５、同理心與「特質生氣」、生氣表達有何關係？ 本研究以大臺北地區四所大學，共843 名學生為對象。研究工具包括（１）特質生氣 量表，（２）生氣表達量表，（３）自我概念量表，（４）武斷短題、量表，（５） 人際反應指標。研究中主要使的統計方法為：多變項變異數分析、典型相關、Schef- fe 研究結果如下： １、性別在「特質生氣」程度上沒有顯著差異。 ２、性別在生氣表達程度上：就外顯生氣、控制分量表而言，男女呈顯著差異，男生 在外顯生氣上得分較高，女生在控制上得分較高。就內隱生氣而言，沒有顯著差異。 ３、「特質生氣」與生氣表達呈顯著相關：「特質生氣」與內隱生氣、外顯生氣、控 制分量表是極顯著相關。 ４、自尊與「特質生氣」、生氣表達呈顯著相關：除個人勝任感與外顯生氣呈不顯著 相關外，與其餘各分量表皆呈極顯著相關。 ５、武斷與「特質生氣」、生氣表達呈顯著相關：武斷與「特質生氣」、生氣表達各 分量表皆呈極顯著正相關。 ６、同理心與「特質生氣」、生氣表達有顯著相關：「幻想力」與控制分量表呈不顯 著相「身心憂急」與控制分量表呈極顯著負相關；「觀點取替」與控制分量表呈極顯 著正相關；「同情關懷」與控制分量表呈極顯著正相關。

設計思考是強調以人為本的創新，透過同理心之觀察、研究，全盤發想整體的創新對策來解決最根本的議題，並以原型製作輔助闡述，創造出新組合和跨領域解決方案，最終達到策略商業設計的目的(Strategic business design)。 現在，純粹以製造為導向、科技為導向的能力與觀念已不足以因應台灣當前所處之市場競爭環境，設計思考闡述回歸人性、回歸關懷顧客的根本需求，「以人為本」，援引社會學家、人類學家的田野調查方法，及開放的動腦會議，提供創新思考模式開發產品、服務甚至是流程或組織變革。 本研究以創新的擴散為研究架構，結合台灣企業實務導入之經驗，與相關領域專家訪談，希望能對台灣企業面臨之挑戰提供建議。 / What is “Design Thinking”? Design thinking is the human-centered innovation that focuses on the issues of observation, accurate definition and early test. Through these processes with empathy base, we are able to come up with a total innovation strategy which solves the fundamental problems. With the help of prototyping, design thinking creates a whole new interdisciplinary innovation achieving the ambition of strategic business design. This system which includes manufacture- oriented abilities and tech-oriented concepts is inadequate for the fierce competition what we live in. Design thinking makes us return to human nature by methodologies of sociology and anthropology. In addition, open brainstorming provides an innovative way for new product development, new service or even organization reforms. This research bases on the “Diffusion of Innovations” written by Everett M. Rogers, and the experiences gained from practical execution of industry and experts, hoping it would give some advice on dealing with nowadays challenges.

生活中許多決策情境是「不確定下的決策（decisions under uncertainty）」，只瞭解選項的結果，不知道結果發生的機率。人們會累積經驗，以學習到適當的決策。許多證據支持，自身會透過增強學習（reinforcement learning）機制學習，根據每次獲得的經驗，調整對於選項的期望，之後選擇期望最大的選項，幫助做出適當的決策。經驗可以透過自身決策或觀察他人決策所獲得，然而，過去較少研究探討觀察學習。因此，本研究欲探討決策中的觀察學習，並釐清同理心對於觀察學習的調節作用。實驗一中，改善過去了研究限制，量測膚電反應、學習速率與行為表現，讓參與者在自身學習、觀察他人與觀察電腦情境進行作業，並透過同理心問卷測量參與者的同理心特質。結果顯示，觀察學習在正向學習與負向學習不同，正向學習為趨向優勢選項，負向學習為避開劣勢選項。正向學習在三種學習情境中無任何差異，負向學習在觀察他人學習時，會受到同理心的調節作用。同理心分數越高，觀察他人的負向行為表現越好，觀察他人負向回饋的膚電反應越大。實驗一只透過問卷測量同理心，無法推論因果關係，因此實驗二直接操弄了不同的同理程度。回饋呈現的同時，呈現他人的情緒或中性臉孔圖片，以引發參與者的同理程度高或低。實驗中，量測回饋相關負波（Feedback-Related Negativity，FRN）、學習速率與行為表現。如同實驗一，只有負向學習受到同理程度不同的影響。同理程度高時，負向學習表現較好。FRN則顯示了同理程度與預期性的交互作用，同理程度低時，與過去研究一致，非預期FRN比預期FRN更加負向；同理程度高時，則無此預期性效果。雖然FRN無預期性差異，但依然能學習到符號機率，行為表現不受影響，推測可能有其他系統參與決策學習。綜上所述，本研究顯示，只有負向學習中，觀察學習會受到同理心的調節，同理心越高，行為表現越好。 / In daily life, we made many decisions under uncertainty. In each decision, we know only the outcome but no probabilities of the outcome. We have to accumulate the experience to learn adaptive decisions. Bunches of studies have shown that people may learn adaptive decisions by reinforcement learning. People modified the expectation for each option according to decision feedbacks, and, in the next time, chose the option with the maximum expectation. People can receive feedback from decisions making by self or others. However, fewer studies examined observational learning in decision making. Therefore, present research would clarify observational learning in decision making, and examine how empathy modulated observational learning. In experiment 1, skin conductance response, learning rate and behavioral performance were recorded and analyzed. Participants would learning decisions in different situations of self learning, observing others and observing computer. The questionnaire of empathy was also measured to examine its modulation in observational learning. The results showed that there were difference in positive learning and negative learning. Positive learning is to approach to the advantageous option, while negative learning is to avoid from the disadvantageous option. In positive learning, there were no difference among the three learning situations, but, in negative learning, empathy would modulate learning by observing others. The higher the empathy score was, the better the behavioral performance of negative learning was. Moreover, the skin conductance response when participants observing others’ negative feedback positively correlated with the empathy score. In experiment 2, the empathy level was manipulated by display pictures of others faces with feedback. Displaying the emotional faces or neutral faces would induce high or low empathy level for others, respectively. The feedback-related negativity (FRN), learning rate and behavioral performance were recorded and analyzed. Similar to experiment 1, only the negative learning was modulated by the empathy level. When participants were induced high empathy level, the behavioral performance was better. The results of FRN showed the interaction between empathy levels and expectancy of feedback. When participant’s empathy level was low, unexpected FRN was more negative than expected FRN. This result was consistent with previous studies. Nevertheless, when participant’s empathy level was high, there was no difference between unexpected FRN and expected FRN. Although FRN didn't show the effect of expectancy, participants could still learn the probabilities of each signs and made adaptive decisions. This result may result from other systems involved in observational learning. From the results of experiment 1 and 2, present research showed that, only in negative learning, observational learning was modulated by empathy, and the higher the empathy level was, the better the behavioral performance was.

過去研究指出，親職壓力是造成兒童虐待的危險因子之一。本研究探討：親職壓力因應策略與親職同理心對管教行為的影響，或此兩變項是否能調節親職壓力對管教行為的影響，欲透過研究結果來加強兒童虐待的預防。本研究請每位受試者填寫五種量表，分別為：基本資料、親職同理心、親職壓力、親職壓力因應與親職衝突策略量表，利用零相關和階層迴歸，分析142位育有國小子女之單親母親所填寫的量表。研究結果部分符合預期：親職壓力因應策略中的「主動面對問題」、「逃避隱藏情緒」可以調節親職壓力對非暴力管教行為的影響，「情緒認知調整」亦在親職壓力和嚴重攻擊管教行為間扮演調節變項。除了調節作用外，親職壓力因應策略對管教行為有獨特的預測力：「主動面對問題」使用經常性越高，輕度攻擊的使用次數越多，「負面情緒反應」使用經常性越高，心理攻擊和輕度攻擊的使用次數越多。「親職同理心」則對管教行為沒有獨特的預測力，也不具有調節作用。另外亦發現「親職同理心」和「逃避隱藏情緒」可以預測親職壓力。本研究針對研究結果進行討論，包括管教行為與兒童虐待的關係、親職壓力因應策略與管教行為間的關係、親職同理心扮演的角色，以及單親母親兒童虐待行為的預防。 / According to previous studies, parenting stress is one of the risk factors of child abuse. This study explored the influence of parenting stress- coping styles and parental empathy on parenting practices, and examined the moderating effect of these variables on the relationship between parenting stress and parenting practices. The subjects were asked to complete the questionnaires including: basic information, parental empathy scale, parenting stress scale, parenting stress-coping scale, and Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales. Zero-order correlation and hierarchical regression analysis were used to analyze the scales completed by 142 single mothers. The results indicated that “Facing the problems actively” and “Evading hidden feelings” could moderate the relationship between parenting stress and non-violent discipline. “Adjustment in sentimental cognition” could moderate the relationship between parenting stress and severe assault. Furthermore, some of the parenting stress- coping styles had main effect on parenting practices: “Facing the problems actively” had a positive effect on minor assault. “Negative sentimental reaction” had a positive effect on psychological aggression and minor assault. There were no main effects nor moderator effect of parental empathy. The relationship between parenting practices and child abuse, the influence of parenting stress- coping styles on parenting practices, the role of parental empathy, and the prevention of child abuse in single-mother households were discussed in this study.

本研究目的在探討後形式思考的發展，以及後形式思考與人際關係之容忍性、同理心、自我揭露、自主性之關係。受試為644位分佈於青年期後期至成人期(18至80歲)的受試，以問卷法進行研究。資料分析採用百分比差異性考驗與單因子變異數分析。結果發現：1. 在後形式思考的發展方面，青年期後期屬於形式性思考組的百分比高於早成人期與中、老年期屬於於形式性思考組的百分比。早成人期屬於相對性思考組的百分比高於中、老年期屬於相對性思考組的百分比。中、老年期屬於辯証性思考組的百分比高於青年期後期與早成人期屬於辯証性思考組的百分比。綜合三個認知思考組與各年齡組之關係，相對性思考的發展時機比形式性思考要晚，辯証性思考的發展時機比相對性思考要晚。2. 在後形式思考與人際關係之「容忍性」、「同理心」、「自我揭露」、「自主性」之關係方面：(1)後形式思考組的「容忍性」高於形式性思考組的「容忍性」；辯証性思考組的「容忍性」高於相對性思考組的「容忍性」；相對性思考組的「容忍性」高於形式性思考組的「容忍性」。辯証性思考組在容忍性之「統整差異」得分高於形式性思考組與相對性思考組的得分；(2)後形式思考組的「同理心」高於形式性思考組的「同理心」；辯証性思考組的「同理心」高於相對性思考組的「同理心」；相對性思考組的「同理心」高於形式性思考組的「同理心」；(3)後形式思考組的「自我揭露」高於形式性思考組的「自我揭露」；辯証性思考組的「自我揭露」高於形式性思考組與相對性思考組的「自我揭露」；相對性思考組與形式性思考組的「自我揭露」沒有顯著差異；(4)後形式思考組的「自主性」高於形式性思考組的「自主性」；辯証性思考組的「自主性」高於形式性思考組與相對性思考組的「自主性」；相對性思考組與形式性思考組的「自主性」沒有顯著差異。辯証性思考組在「自主性」之相互依賴性高於形式性思考組與相對性思考組的相互依賴性。 本研究根據研究結果討論這些發現的可能原因，並提出後形式思考未來的研究建議，以及研究結果在人際關係實際應用上的啟示。 壹、緒論　　　　　　　　　　　 　　 　 　　　 01 一、 研究動機 01 二、 研究目的 10 三、 名詞釋義 11 (一) 認知發展範疇 11 (二) 人際關係範疇 12 貳、文獻探討 15 一、 後形式思考的本質 15 (一) 後形式思考的特徵 15 (二) 相對性思考 22 (三) 辯証性思考 28 (四) 相對性思考與辯証性思考的比較 34 二、 後形式思考的發展 38 三、人際關係的發展 45 (一) 人際關係的重要性 45 (二) 人際關係發展的重要向度 46 四、 後形式運思與人際關係之容忍性、同理心、自我揭露、自主性 之關係 53 (一) 後形式思考與人際關係的本質 53 (二)後形式思考與人際關係之「容忍性」、「同理心」、「自我揭露」、「自主性」 之關係 55 參、研究方法 73 一、 研究架構 73 二、 研究問題與假設 74 三、 研究樣本 76 四、 研究工具 78 (一) 後形式思考的測量 78 (二) 「容忍性」的測量 91 (三) 「同理心」的測量 93 (四) 「自我揭露」的測量 97 (五) 「自主性」的測量 104 五、資料蒐集與樣本來源 111 肆、研究結果 114 一、後形式思考的發展 118 二、後形式思考與人際關係之容忍性、同理心、自我揭露、自主性 之關係 125 (一)形式性思考與後形式思考在「容忍性」的差異 126 (二)形式性思考與後形式思考在「同理心」的差異 129 (三)形式性思考與後形式思考在「自我揭露」的差異 131 (四)形式性思考與後形式思考在「自主性」的差異 133 伍、結果、討論與建議 107 一、結果 107 (一)後形式思考的發展 142 (二)後形式思考與人際關係之「容忍性」、「同理心」、「自我揭露」、 「自主性」之關係 142 二、討論 143 (一)後形式思考的發展 143 (二)後形式思考與人際關係之「容忍性」、「同理心」、「自我揭露」、 「自主性」之關係 114 (三)整體性發展觀的綜合討論 153 三、建議 157 (一)研究的測量工具 157 (二)研究設計的限制與建議 167 (三)未來的研究方向 168 (四)實際應用的啟示 174 參考文獻 181 附錄 197 附錄一：信念量表 197 附錄二：人際關係問卷(A) 205 附錄三：人際關係與信念問卷(A) 215 / The purpose of this study was to investigate the development of postformal thinking and the relationships between postformal thinking and the tolerance、empathy、self-disclosure、autonomy of interpersonal relations. Subjects were 644, ranging from late adolescence to adulthood (age from 18 to 80 years). Questionnaire was used as the research method. The testing of differences between two percentages and one-way ANOVA were used for data analysis. The results were : 1. In the development of postformal thinking, the percentage of formalistic thinker in late adolescence group (18-23 years) was higher than early adulthood groups' (24-40 years) and middle、late adulthood groups' (41-80 years), the percentage of relativistic thinker in early adulthood group was higher than middle、late adulthood groups', the percentage of dialectical thinker in middle、late adulthood group was higher than late adolescence group's and early adulthood group's. According to the findings of the relationships between the cognitive thinking groups and age groups, the developmental timing of relativistic thinking was later than the timing of formalistic thinking, the developmental timing of dialectical thinking was later than the timing of relativistic thinking. 2. In the findings of the relationships between the postformal thinking and the tolerance、empathy、self-disclosure、autonomy of interpersonal relations: (1) The tolerance of the postformal thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's, the tolerance of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's, the tolerance of the relativistic thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's. The score of integration differences of tolerance of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's and the formalistic thinking group's. (2) The empathy of the postformal thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's, the empathy of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's, the empathy of the relativistic thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's. (3) The self-disclosure of the postformal thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's, the self-disclosure of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's and the formalistic thinking group's. (4) The autonomy of the the postformal thinking group was higher than the formalistic thinking group's, the autonomy of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's and the formalistic thinking group's. The interdependence of the dialectical thinking group was higher than the relativistic thinking group's and the formalistic thinking group's. The possible reasons of the above findings were discussed in the paper. According to these findings, suggestions of future research about postformal thinking and implications of practical applications in interpersonal relations were mentioned.

本論文研究專注於研究穿戴科技對於銀髮族遠距照護服務創新的可能性，利用系統思維與設計思維的研究方法來進行服務設計。研究問題設定為”一個罹患慢性病並獨自在家生活的銀髮族,如何自主健康生活，並能讓家人感到安心呢” 。透過顧客驅動價值共創的服務設計模型，確認利害關係人，並實際訪談利害關係人後深入分析使用者潛在問題及需求，以不同視角來找出創新的洞見。依據此洞見來發展可行的方案，並展開成為完整的服務系統，再將此服務系統雛型具體化產出後進行風險分析。最終的研究結果以商業模式草圖來呈現完整的商業模式。 / The aim of this thesis is to study the possibility of the wearable technology and to create a service innovation toward the tele-health for elders. The research method of the service design is based on the design thinking and the system thinking.We set up a hypothetical situation as follows: A solitary elder who has chronic diseases knows to how to manage her/ his life well without making the family worry. Through the service design models from the co-creation of the customer empowerment, we affirm the stakeholder at the beginning and then interview her/ him to get to know more about the needs and some main details. The purpose is to look for the insight into the innovation in different aspects. Based on this insight, we start a feasible plan and develop the integrity of the service design. Next thing we externalize the service design prototype and provide the follow-up risk assessment.As the final result, we use business model canvas to bring out the coherence and the integrity to our business models.