Empathy varies with similarity and familiarity of the other. Since outgroups are seen as dissimilar to the self, empathy might be restricted to the ingroup. We looked at two neural correlates of empathy: mirror neuron system activation as indicated by electroencephalographic mu suppression and prefrontal alpha asymmetry. Non black participants watched videos of ingroup and outgroup members acting and expressing emotions, and then acted and experienced emotions themselves. Due to methodological problems, mirror neuron system activation was not obtained. However, anterior asymmetries indicated avoidance motivation during the experience of sadness and the mere observation of sad ingroup members while participants did not show anterior asymmetry when observing the black outgroup. These findings suggest that empathy is bounded to a closed circle of similar others.

Empathy varies with similarity and familiarity of the other. Since outgroups are seen as dissimilar to the self, empathy might be restricted to the ingroup. We looked at two neural correlates of empathy: mirror neuron system activation as indicated by electroencephalographic mu suppression and prefrontal alpha asymmetry. Non black participants watched videos of ingroup and outgroup members acting and expressing emotions, and then acted and experienced emotions themselves. Due to methodological problems, mirror neuron system activation was not obtained. However, anterior asymmetries indicated avoidance motivation during the experience of sadness and the mere observation of sad ingroup members while participants did not show anterior asymmetry when observing the black outgroup. These findings suggest that empathy is bounded to a closed circle of similar others.

L'esquizofrènia és un trastorn cerebral crònic, greu i incapacitant que afecta l'1% de la població i s'expressa en funcions mentals anormals i alteracions en el comportament. La causa de l'esquizofrènia és desconeguda, ara bé, la vulnerabilitat de patir aquesta malaltia psiquiàtrica està clarament relacionada amb factors genètics. Existeixen evidències que suggereixen que aquest trastorn es relaciona amb una activitat i connectivitat alterada de l'escorça prefrontal (EPF) i àrees relacionades anatòmicament i funcional com el tàlem i els nuclis del mesencèfal (nuclis del rafe-NR, locus coeruleus-LC i l'àrea tegmental ventral-ATV). S'han elaborat nombroses hipòtesis sobre l'etiologia de l'esquizofrènia que inclouen una hiperactivació de la neurotransmissió dopaminèrgica i una hipofunció glutamatèrgica. Ara bé, recentment s'ha suggerit que la hipofunció del receptor NMDA pot originar un excés compensatori d'alliberació de glutamat i incrementar l'activitat de les neurones piramidals de l'EPF. Endemés, en models de desconnexió neonatal de l'hipocamp s'ha observat una més elevada activitat excitadora de dopamina sobre neurones piramidals corticals.En la present Tesi Doctoral hem caracteritzat el paper que exerceixen receptors corticals excitadors i inhibitoris sobre l'activitat del circuit EPF-NR, i hem estudiat l'acció dels fàrmacs antipsicòtics sobre aquests receptors per tal de conèixer millor les bases neurobiològiques de la seva acció terapèutica.L'EPF medial (EPFm) expressa abundantment receptors serotoninèrgics 5-HT1A (inhibitoris) i 5-HT2A (excitadors). Els nostres treballs han mostrat que l'activació farmacològica d'aquests receptors corticals modula de manera oposada l'alliberació local de 5-HT mitjançant canvis en l'excitabilitat de les neurones piramidals que coexpressen àmpliament ambdós receptors i que projecten als nuclis serotoninèrgics. Antecents del grup mostren que l'administració de DOI (al.lucinogen, agonista 5-HT2A/2C) incrementa la freqüència de descàrrega de les neurones piramidals i l'alliberació cortical de serotonina (5-HT), activació circuit EPFm-NR. Així hem estudiat l'alliberació de 5-HT cortical, mitjançant la tècnica de microdiàlisi intracerebral in vivo, com a mesura indirecta de l'activitat de les neurones piramidals. Hem descrit també que l'estimulació dels receptors excitadors adrenèrgics 1 corticals incrementa l'alliberació local i al NDR de 5-HT, possiblement a través del mateix mecanisme que l'activació dels receptors 5-HT2A (estimulació de les vies excitadores descendents cap al NDR). De la mateixa manera, l'augment de la neurotransmissió glutamatèrgica a l'EPFm, mitjançant i) l'aplicació local de S-AMPA, ii) la desinhibició de les aferències glutamatèrgiques talàmiques o bé iii) l'administració sistèmica d'antagonistes glutamatèrgics dels receptors NMDA, estimula l'alliberació de 5-HT a l'EPF, fet que és probablement degut a una major activitat de les neurones piramidals que projecten al NDR i al conseqüent increment de l'activitat serotoninèrgica. Amdós efectes (adrenèrgic-1 i glutamatèrgic) són revertits pel bloqueig de receptors adrenèrgics 1 i 5-HT2A.Endemés hem observat que l'estimulació del receptor 5-HT1A a l'EPFm reverteix l'increment de l' alliberació local de 5-HT induït per l'agonista 5-HT2A/2C DOI, l'agonista adrenèrgic 1 cirazolina i S-AMPA. La implicació dels receptors 5-HT1A postsinàptics a EPFm en aquesta inhibició es fa palesa perquè i) és comuna a cinc agonistes diferents, ii) és revertida per la inactivació prèvia i el bloqueig dels receptors 5-HT1A, i iii) està totalment absent en ratolins genoanul·lats d' aquest receptor. Finalment, hem descrit que els fàrmacs antipsicòtics reverteixen l'increment de l'alliberació de 5-HT a l'EPFm induït per l' estimulació de receptors excitadors corticals. Aquesta acció és possiblement deguda a la seva capacitat de bloquejar in vivo els receptors 1 adrenèrgics (típics i atípics) i 5-HT2A (atípics) pels quals presenten una elevada afinitat. Aquestes dades suggereixen que els fàrmacs antipsicòtics exercirien en part la seva acció terapèutica disminuint una possible hiperactivitat de les neurones de l'EPF. Ara bé, la incapacitat de l'haloperidol de bloquejar l'efecte dels antagonistes NMDA indica possiblement diferències d'acció entre antipsicòtics típics i atípics sobre les neurones corticals. / The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a crucial role in higher brain functions which are altered in schizophrenic patients. Pyramidal neurons in medial PFC (mPFC) integrate excitatory inputs from cortex and thalamus, and modulatory inputs from brainstem aminergic nuclei like raphe nuclei (RN). In turn, mPFC controls the activity of raphe serotonergic neurons. Previous reports showed that the stimulation of prefrontal 5-HT2A or AMPA receptors increases pyramidal and serotonergic cell firing, and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) release in mPFC. We use 5-HT release (microdialysis technique) as an indirect measure of pyramidal activity.In this Doctoral Thesis we have examined the role of cortical excitatory and inhibitory receptors in the mPFC-RN circuit, which has been implicated in schizophrenia. Given the similar laminar distribution of 5-HT2A receptors and a1-adrenoceptors in mPFC and their excitatory action on pyramidal neuron activity, we tested the hypothesis that a1-adrenoceptors might also modulate 5-HT release. Antipsychotics exhibit high affinity for receptors expressed in pyramidal neurons such as 5-HT2A and a1-adrenoceptors. Therefore, we have also examined the effects of antipsychotics, as well as selective antagonists for these receptors, on the increased mPFC 5-HT release induced by cirazoline (a1-adrenoceptor agonist), DOI (5-HT2A/2C agonist), and the increase in glutamatergic transmission.The results showed that the stimulation of prefrontal a1-adrenoceptors and the increase in mPFC glutamatergic transmission (exogenous stimulation of AMPA receptors, disinhibition of thalamic afferents to mPFC or acute administration of NMDA antagonists) activate pyramidal afferents to ascending serotonergic neurons (measured as an increase in 5-HT release in RN and mPFC) possibly in a manner similar to that observed for 5-HT2A receptors. This effect was reversed by antipsychotics and antagonists of excitatory receptors located in pyramidal neurons.The PFC contains high density of serotonin 5-HT1A (inhibitory) and 5-HT2A (excitatory) receptors. Likewise, we report that the activation of cortical 5-HT1A receptors reverse the increase in local 5-HT release induced by cirazoline, DOI and S-AMPA. Finally, our results suggest that antipsychotics may exert their therapeutic action by reducing the increased excitability of prefrontal pyramidal neurons. The effect of classical antipsychotics may involve blockade of a1-adrenoceptors, whereas that of atypical may also involve blockade of 5-HT2A receptors.

Title from title page of PDF (University of Missouri--St. Louis, viewed March 3, 2010). Includes bibliographical reference (p. 53-71).

Title from title page of PDF (University of Missouri--St. Louis, viewed February 23, 2010). Includes bibliographical references (p. 61-71).

<p>The ability to monitor, learn from, and respond to social information is essential for many highly social animals, including humans. Deficits to this capacity are associated with numerous psychopathologies, including autism spectrum disorders, social anxiety disorder, and schizophrenia. To understand the neural mechanisms supporting social information seeking behavior requires understanding this behavior in its natural context, and presenting animals with species-appropriate stimuli that will elicit the behavior in the laboratory. In this dissertation, I describe a novel behavioral paradigm I developed for investigating social information seeking behavior in rhesus macaques in a laboratory setting, with the use of naturalistic videos of freely-behaving conspecifics as stimuli. I recorded neural activity in the orbitofrontal and lateral prefrontal cortex of monkeys as they engaged in this task, and found evidence for a rich but sparse representation of natural behaviors in both areas, particularly in the orbitofrontal cortex. This sparse encoding of conspecifics' behaviors represents the raw material for social information foraging decisions.</p> / Dissertation

Source memory is defined as memory for not only the core aspect of some event, but additional contextual detail about that core aspect, or item. Source memory tasks are marked by their engagement of prefrontal cortex in addition to the brain circuits required by other episodic memory tasks. The dissertation examines the relationships among source memory accuracy, concurrent brain activity, and general cognitive principles derived from the study of episodic memory more generally. Electrical measures of brain activity (event-related potentials, ERPs) were recorded while manipulating factors hypothesized to improve or worsen source memory accuracy.The first experiment manipulated the task assigned during the encoding phase and its match to the retrieval demands of remembering objects (depicted in drawings) and their colors. As predicted by the principle of transfer-appropriate processing, source accuracy was higher when the encoding task fostered integration of the item (object) and source (color) attributes. Prefrontal activity during the retrieval phase was greatly reduced when retrieval could benefit from transfer-appropriate processing.In associative memory tasks, poor memory performance is observed when the to-be-retained stimuli share elements with other studied stimuli, as in a variety of interference paradigms. The second experiment thus examined the impact of feature overlap on source recognition by varying the quantitative mapping between the shape and color of an object depicted in a drawing. The results showed two frontal processes supporting source retrieval: an early differentiation between stimuli identical to those encoded and those that switch colors from study to test, and a later effect reflecting prolonged memory search that was truncated by reinstating unique object-color pairings at test.The final experiment compared conjunctions of "intra-item" versus "extra-item" features, by placing the features within a single visual object or distributing them across two visual objects. Source accuracy was worse when shape and color were spatially separated, but prefrontal activity did not vary. The insensitivity of prefrontal ERPs to this perceptual manipulation of difficulty stands in contrast to their sensitivity to encoding task. Individual variability in parietal ERPs was strongly correlated with source accuracy, and likely reflects a contribution of visual working memory to long-term memory.

The feasibility of using real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) feedback regarding the level of activation in rostromedial prefrontal cortex (rMPFC) to learn improved regulation of this brain area was examined in a group of 5 young adults. Subjects received real-time feedback from the target brain region while engaging in a blocked-design task involving alternating blocks of attempted up-regulation and down-regulation of the target brain region. A transient negative emotional state was induced prior to each scanning session. Subjects completed 6 scanning sessions (a pre-training session, 4 feedback sessions and a post-training session - no feedback was provided for pre and post-training sessions). The guideline strategy provided to subjects of engaging in emotional awareness during up-regulation and bodily awareness during down-regulation was found to consistently regulate the region in the pre-training session prior to the fMRI feedback sessions. This finding is in line with the previously proposed role of the rMPFC in emotional awareness. In contrast to previous real-time fMRI findings, greater recruitment of the region was observed in the pre-training session compared to the post-training session, with a non-significant negative trend observed across feedback sessions. These results suggest that there may be limitations to which the feedback techniques successfully employed for other brain regions extend to yet unexplored brain regions.

Many studies of ‘executive control’ have focused on the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which contains the neuronal functional properties, modulatory neurotransmitters, and network connections with sensory and motor regions to make this large brain area a candidate region to provide all the necessary elements to voluntarily control behavior. However, like the motor and premotor cortex, the PFC is integrated with the basal ganglia (BG) in such a similar fashion, that it is impossible not to consider that the PFC might depend on the BG to implement executive control effectively. This thesis draws on knowledge of PFC and BG function, and combines studies that require the instantaneous top-down control over motor behavior with a neurological patient group with primarily BG dysfunction (Parkinson’s disease), to provide for a new understanding of prefrontal-BG networks sub-serving executive control. The tasks performed by subjects consist of antisaccades (generate a voluntary eye-movement away from a visual stimulus) and those dealing with task switching (change behavior after an alternate was previously required). Numerous neural and functional imaging studies have identified key areas of the prefrontal cortex and BG that are critical to antisaccade generation, and studies in task switching have implicated similar neural mechanisms that are involved in overriding one behavior with another. By combining task switching with antisaccades, this thesis specifically examines the neural mechanisms related to suddenly changing behavior, under conditions where one behavior is easier to perform than the other. The methods utilize on-line eye-tracking in healthy young adults and older adults with, and without, Parkinson’s disease, to develop theories of a role of the BG in executive control, and to search for specific neural correlates of executive control signals in the PFC, premotor cortex and BG using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Together, the conclusions drawn from this thesis point to an important role of the BG in overriding more automatic behavior with behavior that is more difficult to perform. This thesis also suggests that this overriding mechanism occurs through the boosting of cortical executive control signals via net excitatory feedback from the BG. / Thesis (Ph.D, Neuroscience Studies) -- Queen's University, 2010-09-09 12:17:46.904

L-glutamate (Glu) is the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter inthe mammalian central nervous system (CNS) and is associated with a widevariety of functions including motor behavior and sensory perception. Whilemicrodialysis methods have been used to record tonic levels of Glu, little isknown about the more rapid changes in Glu signals that may occur in awakeanimals. We have previously reported acute recording methods using anenzyme-based microelectrode array (MEA) with fast temporal resolution (800msec), that is minimally invasive and is capable of detecting low levels of Glu (andlt;0.2 ??M) in anesthetized animals with little interference from other analytes. Wehave made a series of modifications to the MEA design to allow for reliablemeasures in the brain of awake behaving rats. In these studies, wecharacterized the effects of chronic implantation of the MEA into the striatum andprefrontal cortex (PFC) of Fischer 344 and Long Evans rats. We measuredresting levels of Glu and local application of Glu for 7 days without a significantloss of sensitivity and determined that Glu measures due to exogenous Gluvaried between rat strain and brain region. In addition, we determined theviability of the recordings in the brains of awake animals. We performed studiesof tail-pinch induced stress which caused an increase in Glu in the striatum andPFC of Long Evans and Fischer 344 rats. Histological data show that chronicimplantation of our MEAs caused minimal injury to the CNS. Taken together, ourdata support that chronic recordings of tonic and phasic Glu can be carried out inawake rats reliably for 7 days in vivo allowing for longer term studies of Gluregulation in behaving rats.