The viscosity and density of bis(8-methylnonyl) benzene-1,2- dicarboxylate {diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP)}, with a nominal viscosity at T = 298 K and p = 0.1 MPa of 87 mPa•s, have been measured at temperatures from (298.15 to 423.15) K and pressures from (0.1 to 70) MPa. A vibrating wire viscometer, with a wire diameter of about 0.15 mm, was utilised for the viscosity measurements and the results have an expanded uncertainty, (k = 2), including the error arising from the pressure measurement, of between ±(2 and 2.5) % The density was determined with two vibrating tube densimeters one for operation at p≈0.1 MPa with an expanded uncertainty (k = 2) of about ±0.1 %, the other that used at pressures up to 70 MPa, with an estimated expanded uncertainty (k = 2) of about ±0.3 %. Measurements of density and viscosity were performed on three samples of DIDP each with different purity stated by the supplier and as a function of water mass fraction. The measured viscosity and density are represented by interpolating expressions with differences between the experimental and calculated values that are comparable with the expanded (k = 2) uncertainties. The obtained viscosities at p = 0.1 MPa agree with values reported in the literature within the combined expanded (k = 2) uncertainties of the measurements while our densities differ by no more than 1.5 %. Viscosity data at p > 0.1 MPa deviate systematically from the literature values in the range of -10 % to 10 %. An apparatus capable of simultaneously measuring the solubility of a gas dissolved in a liquid and the viscosity and the density of the resulting mixture over a wide temperature and pressure range was constructed and tested. Preliminary results have been reported.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Drexel University, 2004. / Includes abstract and vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 178-191).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2007. / Full text release at OhioLINK's ETD Center delayed at author's request

Barragens são utilizadas há séculos para diversas finalidades. Em diversas barragens os vertedouros são constituídos de degraus com o objetivo de aumentar a dissipação de energia. A presente pesquisa objetiva a caracterização dos esforços atuantes em vertedouros em degraus, através da análise da variação das pressões atuantes ao longo da calha e suas distribuições na faces do degraus. Com esse objetivo, são realizadas análises sobre modelos de vertedouros com declividade de 1V:0,75H e degraus de 3, 6 e 9 centímetros. São analisados os campos de pressões nos degraus e comparados com os resultados disponíveis na bibliografia. Também são propostos modelos para previsão de pressões nos patamares e espelhos dos degraus bem como dos esforços resultantes. Além disso, são realizadas transposições dos resultados para a escala de protótipo, inclusive com a análise da possibilidade de cavitação na estrutura. Como constatação geral sobre as pressões nos espelhos verifica-se que os esforços de tração e compressão têm magnitudes relativamente semelhantes, sendo mais intensas as pressões negativas. Sobre as pressões máximas nos patamares, destaca-se que os valores máximos de compressão ocorreram no final da calha, percebendo-se que as menores vazões geraram maiores valores de coeficientes de pressões. As variações da compressão nas faces dos patamares apresentam crescimento, no sentido da extremidade com o espelho acima deste para o vértice com o espelho abaixo do mesmo patamar. Nas faces dos espelhos, percebe-se que os mais extremos de tração são observados na parte superior, próximo à quina com os patamares. / Dams have been used throughout the centuries for a plethora of purposes. Several designs employ steps on the spillways in order to increase the power dissipation. The present research aims to characterize the forces acting on stepped spillways by analyzing both the variation of pressures acting along the pipeline and their distributions on the faces of the steps. In order to achieve this purpose, observations and discussions regarding spillways models with slope characterized as 1V: 0.75H and steps ranging from 3 to 9 centimeters are conducted. The pressure fields measured in the steps were analyzed and compared with results available in the literature. Sub sequentially, models to predict pressures on the faces of the steps and the resulting efforts were proposed. Finally, transpositions were performed on a prototype scale. Generally, it was found that the magnitude of tensile and compressive forces on the vertical faces are relatively similar, being the negative pressure slightly higher on all cases. During the experiments, it was observed that compression forces increased thought the length of the step’s horizontal face, peaking at the edge. It was also noticed that lower flows generated higher pressure coefficients. The measured compression on the horizontal faces of the step and its variation increase towards the edge of the step. It is perceived that the maximum tensile is observed on the top of the step’s vertical faces, near the corner with the horizontal faces.

xi, 103 p. : ill. A print copy of this thesis is available through the UO Libraries. Search the library catalog for the location and call number. / Although outcrossing is the most widespread mating system among animals and plants, the reason for this prevalence is not fully understood. Evolutionary theory has classified the potential selective pressures driving the evolution and maintenance of outcrossing into two broad categories: deleterious mutations and changing ecological conditions. Despite the inherent advantages of self-fertilization, exposure to either or both of these selective pressures is predicted to favor outcrossing over self-fertilization. I tested these predictions using experimental evolution in populations of Caenorhabditis elegans with genetically modified rates of outcrossing and selfing. I found that outcrossing reduces the fixation of deleterious mutations under mutation influx and that outcrossing expedites adaptation to a bacterial pathogen. Further, I identified facultative outcrossing, a novel life history characteristic, in specific C. elegans strains that predominantly reproduce by selfing but engage in outcrossing when stressed. The shift from a primarily selfing mating system to a predominantly outcrossing system is similar to the environmentally induced facultative sex observed in asexual species, which is thought to enable more rapid adaptation. Facultative outcrossing, although not previously documented, may play a major role in the life histories of many highly selfing species. Finally, most mutations are deleterious and therefore elevated mutation rates are generally thought to produce progressively larger reductions in fitness. Using the chemical mutagen ethylmethanesulfonate, I found the surprising result that populations exposed to a mutation rate at least fifty times greater than natural rates exhibited significantly greater fitness than populations exposed to substantially lower mutation rates. This unexpected fitness optimum may be the result of a volatile balance between the influx of deleterious mutations and compensatory mutations. This work confirms the predictions of several long-standing evolutionary theories by identifying both deleterious mutations and changing ecological conditions as selective pressures capable of driving the evolution and maintenance of outcrossing. These selective pressures, which are ubiquitous in nature, may explain the prevalence of outcrossing relative to selling. This dissertation includes previously published and co-authored materials. / Committee in charge: Barbara Roy, Chairperson, Biology; Patrick Phillips, Advisor, Biology; Karen Guillemin, Member, Biology; William Bradshaw, Member, Biology; Douglas Kennett, Outside Member, Anthropology

Barragens são utilizadas há séculos para diversas finalidades. Em diversas barragens os vertedouros são constituídos de degraus com o objetivo de aumentar a dissipação de energia. A presente pesquisa objetiva a caracterização dos esforços atuantes em vertedouros em degraus, através da análise da variação das pressões atuantes ao longo da calha e suas distribuições na faces do degraus. Com esse objetivo, são realizadas análises sobre modelos de vertedouros com declividade de 1V:0,75H e degraus de 3, 6 e 9 centímetros. São analisados os campos de pressões nos degraus e comparados com os resultados disponíveis na bibliografia. Também são propostos modelos para previsão de pressões nos patamares e espelhos dos degraus bem como dos esforços resultantes. Além disso, são realizadas transposições dos resultados para a escala de protótipo, inclusive com a análise da possibilidade de cavitação na estrutura. Como constatação geral sobre as pressões nos espelhos verifica-se que os esforços de tração e compressão têm magnitudes relativamente semelhantes, sendo mais intensas as pressões negativas. Sobre as pressões máximas nos patamares, destaca-se que os valores máximos de compressão ocorreram no final da calha, percebendo-se que as menores vazões geraram maiores valores de coeficientes de pressões. As variações da compressão nas faces dos patamares apresentam crescimento, no sentido da extremidade com o espelho acima deste para o vértice com o espelho abaixo do mesmo patamar. Nas faces dos espelhos, percebe-se que os mais extremos de tração são observados na parte superior, próximo à quina com os patamares. / Dams have been used throughout the centuries for a plethora of purposes. Several designs employ steps on the spillways in order to increase the power dissipation. The present research aims to characterize the forces acting on stepped spillways by analyzing both the variation of pressures acting along the pipeline and their distributions on the faces of the steps. In order to achieve this purpose, observations and discussions regarding spillways models with slope characterized as 1V: 0.75H and steps ranging from 3 to 9 centimeters are conducted. The pressure fields measured in the steps were analyzed and compared with results available in the literature. Sub sequentially, models to predict pressures on the faces of the steps and the resulting efforts were proposed. Finally, transpositions were performed on a prototype scale. Generally, it was found that the magnitude of tensile and compressive forces on the vertical faces are relatively similar, being the negative pressure slightly higher on all cases. During the experiments, it was observed that compression forces increased thought the length of the step’s horizontal face, peaking at the edge. It was also noticed that lower flows generated higher pressure coefficients. The measured compression on the horizontal faces of the step and its variation increase towards the edge of the step. It is perceived that the maximum tensile is observed on the top of the step’s vertical faces, near the corner with the horizontal faces.

O uso de comportas ou válvulas em condutos para efetuar o controle de fluxo em estruturas hidráulicas é bastante usual. Uma das aplicações deste tipo de dispositivo de controle de vazões é para fazer o enchimento e esvaziamento de câmaras de eclusas de navegação. Entretanto, a sua aplicação deve ser feita com cuidado em função da complexidade do escoamento, o qual pode apresentar grandes variações de velocidade e pressões junto à base e ao teto da galeria a jusante da comporta. O gradiente de pressão pode variar no tempo e no espaço podendo vir a ocasionar danos por erosão (desgaste) e/ou cavitação. Assim, torna-se fundamental obter critérios para a estimativa de previsão do valor dessas pressões para, então, poder inferir a possibilidade de danos junto à superfície sólida, permitindo que se determinem as condições críticas de operação que devem ser evitadas ou minimizadas durante as operações de esvaziamento ou de enchimento da câmara da eclusa. Esta pesquisa procura apresentar o estado da arte em relação à distribuição longitudinal das pressões a jusante de comportas tipo segmento invertida e os resultados e análises desenvolvidas em um modelo físico de laboratório. Estes estudos permitiram compreender o comportamento das pressões e verificar se o método sugerido por Batistton (2013), para estimar os valores da distribuição longitudinal das pressões junto à base e o teto da galeria a jusante da comporta, podem ser aplicados para todas as aberturas da comporta. As análises desenvolvidas consentiram observar que as situações críticas ocorrem para aberturas entre 40% e 60% e que as pressões mínimas ocorrem em uma distância adimensional ( ) em torno de 2 a 6. Destaca-se que todos os resultados apresentados na presente pesquisa são válidos para coeficiente de pressão média para abertura de 100% da comporta, CP* 100%, entre 2,8 e 65,9. / The practice of using of gates or valves in conduits to control the flow in hydraulic structures is a common one. One of the applications for this type of device is the flow control for filling and emptying navigation locks. However proper care should be taken when applying those due to the inherit complexity of the flows, which can present significant pressure and velocity fluctuation in the regions next to the floor and ceiling downstream of these gates. Fluctuations in the pressure gradients can cause damage by erosion and/or cavitation. For these reasons its of interest the understanding of criteria for the estimative of those pressures to then infer the possibility of damage in the solid boundaries, allowing the determination of critical operation conditions which to avoid or minimize during the emptying and filling operations of lock chambers. This research aims to present the state of art regarding the longitudinal pressure distribution downstream of inverted tainter gates and the results of experimental data obtained in a physical model. These study allowed to comprehend the behavior of the aforementioned pressures and to verify the method proposed by Battiston (2013) to estimate longitudinal pressure distributions next to the ceiling and floor of those types of structures. The developed analysis showed that the critical conditions occur in between the 40% and 60% opening and that the minimum pressures occur in between a dimensionless distance (Ladm) 2 and 6. The presented results are valid for a mean pressure coefficient of 100% gate opening, CP*100%, between 2,81 and 65,9.

Les nitrures binaires des métaux de transition synthétisés à hautes pressions et hautes températures sont de nouveaux matériaux dont le principal intéret réside dans leur multifonctionalité. Dans cette thèse, nous avons synthétisé de nouveaux nitrures de zirconium et d’hafnium, à une pression inférieure à celle de formation des composés cubiques c-M₃N₄ (M=Zr, Hf), mais supérieure à la pression de formation des mononitrures δ-MN. Les mesures par diffraction de rayons X, ont montré que la structure cristalline de ces composés est monoclinique de type Ca₃Tl₄O₉. La composition chimique M₇N₉ (avec une substitution mineure de l’azote par l’oxygène) vérifiée par une analyse quantitative par microsonde électronique suggère la présence de cations métalliques dans des états d’oxydation +3 et +4. Cette observation indique, pour les autres métaux de transition, la possibilité de former à hautes pressions divers nitrures thermodynamiquement stable avec un large éventail de valeur pour le rapport N:M. Les valeurs des modules élastiques pour les échantillons poreux de Zr₇ N₉ et Hf₇N₉ ont été obtenus par mesures laser ultrasonique (LU) et par nanoindentation. Les résultats pour les matériaux denses ont été dérivés en appliquant l’approche d’Hashin- Shtrickman précédemment développée. Nous obtenons ainsi G₀ = 95(9) GPa et B₀ = 130(10) GPa pour Zr₇N₉ et G₀ = 105(10) GPa et B₀ = 161(10) GPa pour Hf₇N₉. La mesure de la nanodureté donne Hn = 8.0(8) GPa et Hn = 9.1(7) GPa pour Zr₇N₉ et Hf₇N₉ respectivement. Finalement, pour Zr₇N₉ , la dureté de Vickers a été déterminée, Hv = 6.5 GPa et est en accord avec la mesure par nanoindentation. Nous avons dérivé la ténacité soit KIc-if = 3.7(4) MPa.m½ pour Zr₇N₉ . La propriété de self-healing a été partiellement observée pour le nouveau nitrure de zirconium. Pour Hf₇N₉, nous obtenons une valeur moyenne Hv = 6.4(1.0) GPa et une ténacité de 2.3-2.9 MPa.m½. Denses, ces matériaux sont supposés avoir une dureté de l’ordre de 10 GPa et la ténacité de Zr₇N₉ similaire à celle de c-Zr₃N₄, matériau poreux. Pour vérifier la méthode de nanoindentation appliquée dans cette thèse, nous avons réalisé une série de tests sur l’échantillon c-Zr₃N₄ précédemment étudié par LU et nanoindentations mais à de plus faibles profondeurs. Nous avons mesuré le module d’Young réduit, Er, pour le matériau poreux c-Zr₃N₄ et en utilisant la valeur du module d’élasticité isostatique B₀ (mesurée indépendamment par LU ou par l’équation d’état) nous avons déterminé les autres modules élastiques d’un matériau polycristallin, qui sont en accord avec les études LU précédemment présentées. La raison pour laquelle nous avons une moins bonne concordance avec les précédentes données de nanoindenation a été découverte. Pour vérifier d’avantage l’application des mesures par nanoindentation, étendre notre connaissance des propriétés de η-Ta₂N₃ et comparer ce matériaux avec M₇N₉, nous avons examiné un échantillon poreux de η-Ta₂N₃ plus en détail : Er et Hn ont été obtenus à la fois pour l’échantillon poli mécaniquement et pour l’échantillon non modifié et ont montré une différence de comportement sur les 400 premiers nanomètres de la mesure, ce qui a confirmé l’effet de “self-healing”, soit une densification de la surface d’une épaisseur similaire à la taille des grains de polissage. A partir des mesures aux plus grandes profondeurs, nous obtenons E₀= 329-369 GPa et n₀ 0.28-0.33, après calcul à partir de la valeur de la porosité (14%), de B₀ précédemment mesuré et en utilisant l’approche d’Hashin-Shtrickman. La valeur mesurée de la nanodureté s’est révélée être Hn = 18.3 GPa. Enfin, la mesure par dureté de Vickers, Hv, a confirmé les mesures par nanoindentation et montré l’existence d’un effet de la taille de l’indentation pour ce matériau. Pour le matériau dense, nous estimons que Hv > 24 GPa [...] / ₀ ₁ ₂ ₃ ₄ ₅ ₆ ₇ ₈ ₉ ₀
 Binary nitrides of transition metals synthetized at high pressures and high temperatures are new materials which are of interest due to their multifunctionality : They can have combinations of advanced properties, among them elevated elastic moduli, high hardness, high fracture toughness, chemical stability and some of them were found to be suitable for optoelectronic applications. Since the first synthesis of c-Zr₃N₄ in 2003 the studies on such materials extended. For example, c-Zr₃N₄ was found to have a high hardness and an exceptional wear resistance by milling of ferric alloys. ƞ-Ta₂N₃ having orthorhombic structure has a higher B₀ than c-Zr₃N₄ and a similar shear modulus G₀. Moreover, a self-healing effect upon mechanical polishing of a porous ƞ-Ta₂N₃ sample was recognised. There are also reports about synthesis of noble metal nitrides at high pressures and temperatures but these compounds are not recoverable to ambient conditions. In this work we synthetized new nitrides of zirconium and hafnium at pressures below those where c-M₃N₄ (M=Zr, Hf) form but above the pressures of formation of mononitrides δ-MN. X-ray diffraction measurements showed that their crystal structure is monoclinic of the type Ca₃Tl₄O₉. The chemical composition M₇N₉ (with a minor substitution of nitrogen by oxygen), verified by quantitative microprobe analysis, suggests presence of metal cations in the oxidation states +3 and + 4. This observation suggests for other transition metals the possibility to form at high pressures thermodynamically stable nitrides with the N:M ratio varying in a broad range. Elastic moduli of the porous samples of Zr₇N₉ and Hf₇N₉ were measured using laser ultrasonics (LU) and nanoindentation. Values for the dense samples were derived by applying the earlier developed Hashin-Shtrickman approach. We obtained G₀ = 95(9) GPa and B₀ = 130(10) GPa for Zr₇N₉ and G₀ = 105(10) GPa and B₀ = 161(10) GPa for Hf₇N₉. The nanohardness was measured to be Hn = 8.0(8) GPa and Hn = 9.1(7) GPa for Zr₇N₉ and Hf₇N₉, respectively. Vickers hardness of Zr₇N₉ was determined to be Hv = 6.5 GPa which is in agreement with our nanoindentation measurements. We derived its fracture toughness to be KIc-if = 3.7(4) MPa.m½, similar to that of c-Zr₃N₄, and recognised a weak self-healing behaviour. For Hf₇N₉, we obtained an average value of Hv = 6.4(1.0) GPa and KIc-if = 2.3-2.9 MPa.m½. Hardness of dense samples of Zr₇N₉ and Hf₇N₉ was estimated to be ~10 GPa. In order to verify the nanoindentation method we applied in this work, we performed tests on the c-Zr₃N₄ sample studied previously by LU and nanoindentation but at much shallower depths. We measured the reduced Young's modulus, Er, for the porous sample, and, applying the known B₀ (form laser ultrasonic- or equation of state measurements), we determined other elastic moduli for the porous and dense polycrystalline sample, which were in agreement with the earlier LU studies. Reasons for a less good agreement with the earlier nanoindentation data were disclosed. In order to further verify the applied nanoindentation method and extend our knowledge about properties of ƞ-Ta₂N₃ and compare this material with M₇N₉, we examined a porous sample of ƞ-Ta₂N₃ in more detail : Er and Hn obtained for the mechanically polished sample and for the non modified sample showed a distinct behaviour in the first 400 nm of indentation thus confirming the "self-healing" effect at the thickness similar to the size of the polishing grains. From Er measured at larger depths we derived E₀= 329-369 GPa and v₀= 0.28-0.33 using the porosity value (14%), the earlier measured B₀ and applying the Hashin-Shtrickman approach. The nanohardness was measured to be Hn = 18.3 GPa. Measurements of Vickers hardness confirmed our nanoindentation results and revealed the indentation size. For the dense ƞ-Ta₂N₃ we estimate Hv > 24 GPa.

O uso de comportas ou válvulas em condutos para efetuar o controle de fluxo em estruturas hidráulicas é bastante usual. Uma das aplicações deste tipo de dispositivo de controle de vazões é para fazer o enchimento e esvaziamento de câmaras de eclusas de navegação. Entretanto, a sua aplicação deve ser feita com cuidado em função da complexidade do escoamento, o qual pode apresentar grandes variações de velocidade e pressões junto à base e ao teto da galeria a jusante da comporta. O gradiente de pressão pode variar no tempo e no espaço podendo vir a ocasionar danos por erosão (desgaste) e/ou cavitação. Assim, torna-se fundamental obter critérios para a estimativa de previsão do valor dessas pressões para, então, poder inferir a possibilidade de danos junto à superfície sólida, permitindo que se determinem as condições críticas de operação que devem ser evitadas ou minimizadas durante as operações de esvaziamento ou de enchimento da câmara da eclusa. Esta pesquisa procura apresentar o estado da arte em relação à distribuição longitudinal das pressões a jusante de comportas tipo segmento invertida e os resultados e análises desenvolvidas em um modelo físico de laboratório. Estes estudos permitiram compreender o comportamento das pressões e verificar se o método sugerido por Batistton (2013), para estimar os valores da distribuição longitudinal das pressões junto à base e o teto da galeria a jusante da comporta, podem ser aplicados para todas as aberturas da comporta. As análises desenvolvidas consentiram observar que as situações críticas ocorrem para aberturas entre 40% e 60% e que as pressões mínimas ocorrem em uma distância adimensional ( ) em torno de 2 a 6. Destaca-se que todos os resultados apresentados na presente pesquisa são válidos para coeficiente de pressão média para abertura de 100% da comporta, CP* 100%, entre 2,8 e 65,9. / The practice of using of gates or valves in conduits to control the flow in hydraulic structures is a common one. One of the applications for this type of device is the flow control for filling and emptying navigation locks. However proper care should be taken when applying those due to the inherit complexity of the flows, which can present significant pressure and velocity fluctuation in the regions next to the floor and ceiling downstream of these gates. Fluctuations in the pressure gradients can cause damage by erosion and/or cavitation. For these reasons its of interest the understanding of criteria for the estimative of those pressures to then infer the possibility of damage in the solid boundaries, allowing the determination of critical operation conditions which to avoid or minimize during the emptying and filling operations of lock chambers. This research aims to present the state of art regarding the longitudinal pressure distribution downstream of inverted tainter gates and the results of experimental data obtained in a physical model. These study allowed to comprehend the behavior of the aforementioned pressures and to verify the method proposed by Battiston (2013) to estimate longitudinal pressure distributions next to the ceiling and floor of those types of structures. The developed analysis showed that the critical conditions occur in between the 40% and 60% opening and that the minimum pressures occur in between a dimensionless distance (Ladm) 2 and 6. The presented results are valid for a mean pressure coefficient of 100% gate opening, CP*100%, between 2,81 and 65,9.

Este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento e exemplos de aplicação de um software para cálculo de fluxo e pressões em silos cilíndricos metálicos de produtos agrícolas e industriais. As propriedades dos produtos a granel variam amplamente, e consequentemente suas pressões, tanto em grandeza e distribuição. Esses cálculos são importantes para prever picos de pressões imprevisíveis que podem causar sérios danos. O software está desenvolvido em linguagem Python com embasamento nas formulações do BS EN 1991-4 para silos esbeltos, medianamente esbeltos e baixos, com e sem excentricidades de carregamento e descarregamento, tremonhas cônicas, piramidais quadráticas, em forma de cunha ou de saída retangular dos tipos íngreme, rasa ou fundo plano. O programa é rápido, confiável, modular, estruturado e de fácil manuseio. A interface do software é simples para interação entre os dados fornecidos pelo usuário, tais como propriedades dos produtos armazenados, propriedades geométricas do silo e da tremonha, e os resultados obtidos das pressões e determinação do tipo de fluxo. São desenvolvidos exemplos de aplicação e análise dos resultados em silos cilíndricos metálicos de chapa corrugada muito comuns de uso em fazendas e cooperativas. Espera-se fornecer uma importante ferramenta para projetistas e desta forma criar projetos de silos mais eficientes, diminuindo falhas e colapsos. / This paper presents the development and application examples of software for calculation of pressures and flow in metal cylindrical silos of agricultural and industrial products. The properties of bulk materials vary widely, and consequently pressures, both in magnitude and distribution. These calculations are important to avoid peak unpredictable pressures that may cause serious damage. The software is developed in Python with grounding in the formulations of BS EN 1991-4 for silos slender, intermediate slenderness and squat, with and without loading and unloading eccentricities, conical and square pyramidal hoppers, wedge hoppers and hoppers of rectangular planform, shallow, steep or flat bottom. The program is fast, reliable, modular, structured and easy to handle. The software interface is simple for interaction between the data provided by the user, such as properties of stored products, geometric properties of the silo and hopper, and the results of the pressures and determining the type of flow. Are developed application examples and analysis of results in very common corrugated sheet metal cylindrical silos use in farms and cooperatives. It is expected to provide an important tool for designers and thus be more efficient silo designs, reducing failures and breakdowns.