Ein Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Entwicklung eines differentialdiagnostischen Tests (FLI-Test), der die Abgrenzung einer BSE- von einer Scrapieinfektion durch die direkte Untersuchung des Hirnstammmaterials ermöglicht. Bei einem Teil der dabei untersuchten deutschen klassi-schen Scrapiefälle wurde diese Charakterisierung zusätzlich im bis dahin zur Differenzierung verwendeten klassischen Mausbioassay durchgeführt, um die Ergebnisse aus dem FLI-Test zu verifizieren und um die vorhandenen Scrapieisolate weitergehend zu charakterisieren. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden die biochemischen Eigenschaften atypischer deutscher Scrapieisolate analysiert und ihre Infektiosität anhand von Übertragungsversuchen auf drei Wildtypmauslinien und eine transgene Mauslinie beurteilt. Darüber hinaus wurden diese Isolate dem klassischen BSE-Isolat gegenüber gestellt.

Scrapie und die Bovine Spongiforme Enzephalopathie (BSE) sind stets tödlich verlaufende transmissible spongiforme Enzephalopathien (TSE) bei kleinen Wiederkäuern und Rindern. Nach der „Prion-Theorie“ ist die pathologische Isoform eines zellulären Proteins, des Prion-Proteins, der Hauptbestandteil, wenn nicht sogar die einzige Komponente der TSE-Erreger. Gemäß dieser Theorie lagert sich die pathologische Isoform, PrPSc, an die zelluläre Form, PrPC, an und führt so zu einer Konformationsänderung von PrPC. Bisher lassen sich TSE-Erreger nur im Tierversuch sowie in wenigen überwiegend von Nagetieren stammenden Zelllinien vermehren. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war deshalb die Identifikation und Charakterisierung neuer TSE-empfänglicher Zelllinien, wobei vor allem die Infektion oviner und boviner Zelllinien mit Scrapie- bzw. BSE-Feldisolaten im Vordergrund stand. Hierzu wurde zunächst der Einfluss unterschiedlicher Kultur- und Infektionsbedingungen (Nährmedien, Umsetzraten, Temperatur, Herstellung der Inokulate, Inokulationsprotokoll) auf den Infektionserfolg studiert. Basierend auf den dabei gewonnenen Daten wurde ein Infektionsprotokoll erstellt, das im weiteren Verlauf für alle in dieser Studie untersuchten Zelllinien verwendet wurde. Durch die Zellbank des Friedrich-Loeffler-Instituts stand eine Vielzahl unterschiedlicher eukaryotischer Zelllinien zur Verfügung, von denen 53 aus geeigneten Organen und Geweben und größtenteils vom Wiederkäuer stammende Zelllinien ausgewählt wurden. Anschließend wurden diese Zelllinien kultiviert und wiederholt hinsichtlich ihrer PrPC-Expression analysiert. Dabei zeigte sich, dass das PrPC-Expressionniveau für jede Zelllinie sehr individuell und weder spezies- noch gewebespezifisch ist. 34 der 53 Zelllinien exprimierten PrPC in detektierbarer Menge und wurden in den weiteren Infektionsstudien verwendet. Dabei wurden sie mit verschiedenen TSE-Stämmen bzw. -Isolaten (bovines BSE-Material, ovines und caprines Scrapie-Material, mausadaptierte BSE- und Scrapie-Stämme) inokuliert. Der Großteil dieser Zelllinien (30 von 34) zeigte sich gegen alle eingesetzten Prion-Erreger resistent. Zwei Zelllinien konnten transient für 10 (MGbov900) bzw. 32 (Bov11) Passagen mit bovinem BSE-Material infiziert werden. Damit war die prinzipielle Möglichkeit einer BSE-Infektion dieser Zellen gezeigt. Aus bisher ungeklärten Gründen wurde die Prion-Infektion jedoch von beiden Zelllinien wieder verloren und erneute Infektionsversuche blieben erfolglos. Zwei weitere Zelllinien konnten persistent infiziert werden. Die Zelllinie N2a229, eine Sublinie der in der Prion-Forschung weit verbreiteten Neuroblastomzelllinie N2a, war für den mauspassagierten Scrapie-Stamm RML empfänglich. Des Weiteren wurde eine bovine Zelllinie (Bov5; 154PES) identifiziert, die für zwei ovine Scrapie-Feldisolate empfänglich war. Es handelt sich dabei um die erste nicht transgene Zelllinie, die mit einem Scrapie-Feldisolat infiziert werden konnte. Die beiden verwendeten Isolate (S71/04 und S95/04) stammten von Schafen aus einem klassischen Scrapie-Ausbruch aus dem Jahr 2004. In den infizierten Bov5Sc-Zellen steigerte sich die initial schwache PrPSc-Akkumulation über mehrere Passagen zu einem starken Signal, das durch verschiedene Prion-spezifische Antikörper im Dot-Blot, im Western-Blot und mit dem „Zell-ELISA“ nachgewiesen werden konnte. Die Infektion ist bereits seit über 200 Passagen stabil. Sie war mit den besagten Scrapie-Isolaten mehrfach wiederholbar und durch die Selektion von infizierten Einzelzellen konnten hochpositive Sublinien erhalten werden. Infizierte Bov5Sc-Zellen führten nach Inokulation in transgene Rinder- oder Schaf-PrPC überexprimierende Mäuse zu Scrapie-Erkrankungen und der Bildung von PrPSc im Gehirn der Mäuse. Die Infektion von Rinderzellen mit einem ovinen TSE-Isolat bedeutete die Überwindung einer Speziesbarriere. In weiteren Untersuchungen konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Adaptation des Erregers an die Zellen stattgefunden hatte, welche sich z. B. in einem veränderten Glykosylierungs-profil darstellt. Verglichen mit zwei murinen TSE-infizierten Zelllinien zeigten die Bov5Sc-Zellen ähnliche Eigenschaften hinsichtlich ihrer Proteinase K-Resistenz, aber eine deutlich verlängerte Reaktionszeit gegenüber PrPSc inhibierenden Substanzen. Neben den Infektionsstudien an den „Zellbank-Zelllinien“ wurden transgene Zelllinien hergestellt, die auf der Basis von RK13-Zellen (Nierenzellen aus dem Kaninchen) und Hpl3-4-Zellen (neuronale Zelle aus PrP-defizienten-Mäusen) das PrPC von Maus, Schaf, Nerz, Hund sowie zwei chimären Konstrukten aus Maus/Rind/Maus bzw. Maus/Schaf/Maus exprimierten. Ein Großteil dieser transgenen Zelllinien war gegenüber einer Infektion und insbesondere einer Infektion mit TSE-Feldisolaten resistent. Durch Infektionsstudien mit dem mausadaptierten murinen Scrapie-Stamm RML konnten jedoch interessante Einblicke in die Hintergründe der zellulären TSE-Empfänglichkeit gewonnen werden. So zeigte sich, dass die Expression eines chimären PrP-Konstruktes aus Maus und Schaf (Mushp) nur in RK13-Zellen, nicht aber in Hpl3-4-Zellen zu einer für den Scrapie-Stamm RML empfänglichen Zelllinie führte. Dagegen konnten murines PrPC exprimierende Hpl3-4-Zellen erfolgreich mit RML, nicht aber mit dem Stamm Me7 infiziert werden. Diese Versuche unterstützen die Annahme, dass für eine Zellinfektion weitere zelluläre Komponenten eine Rolle spielen und zeigen, dass nur die richtige Kombination aus exprimiertem PrPC und zellulärem Hintergrund die Empfänglichkeit einer Zelllinie für einen speziellen TSE-Erreger bestimmen kann. Weitere Studien mit empfänglichen bzw. infizierten bovinen Zelllinien werden zu einem besseren Verständnis der zellulären Pathogenese bei BSE und Scrapie führen, woraus sich möglicherweise auch ein therapeutischer und diagnostischer Nutzen ziehen lässt.

Prion diseases are neurodegenerative disorders that can affect humans and animals. The underlying event is a conformational change of the normal cellular prion protein (PrPC) into an aberrant isoform termed PrP-scrapie (PrPSc). PrPSc is thought to lead to neurodegeneration and activation of glial cells. Scrapie infection of neuroblastoma cells was shown to increase the expression of insulin receptor (IR). Additionally, a marked reduction of 125I-insulin binding sites was observed. Insulin stimulation showed alteration in both IR β-subunit tyrosine phosphorylation and extracellular signal regulated kinase-2 (ERK2) activity.  Furthermore, scrapie infection was shown to increase insulin-like growth factor-1(IGF-1) receptor (IGF-1R) expression, although the number of 125I-IGF-1-binding sites was reduced. Also binding affinity of 125I-IGF-1 to its receptor was reduced, and tyrosine phosphorylation of IGF-1R-β-subunit in response to IGF-1 was altered. The increased levels of neurotrophic receptors might represent a neuroprotective response to prion infection. However, scrapie infection instead leads to decreased function, decreased levels of functional receptors, or both, which could promote neurodegeneration in prion diseases, through attenuated neurotrophic support. In BV-2 microglial cells, LPS-induced iNOS (inducible nitric oxide synthase) expression and subsequent NO production were mainly mediated through c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Antioxidant treatment indicates that oxidative suppressing mechanism(s) acts on JNK pathway possibly as a regulatory mechanism controlling the NO levels. The JNK pathway was also shown to play an important role in the survival of BV-2 cells. We show that BV-2 cells are protected from ongoing apoptosis by pro-survival activity mediated both by the JNK and p38 MAPK pathway during LPS-induced inflammation. This is very interesting findings since it is important for microglia to respond properly to a pathogen, without themselves being affected and undergo apoptosis.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, 2006. / Härtill 3 uppsatser.

Protein misfolding diseases (PMDs) are a broad group of disorders including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and prion diseases. They are characterised by the presence of aggregated, misfolded host proteins which are thought to cause cell death. Prion diseases are associated with misfolded prion protein (PrPSc), which has a tendency to form fibrillar aggregates. By contrast, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is associated with misfolded amyloid beta (Aβ), which aggregates to form characteristic Aβ plaques. A feature which is common across PMDs is that small assemblies (oligomers) of the misfolded proteins are thought to be the important neurotoxic species, and it has been proposed that there may be a shared mechanism leading to cell death across PMDs caused by oligomers. In this study, the toxicity of different misfolded forms of recombinant PrP (recPrP) and recombinant Aβ (recAβ) and the mechanisms leading to cell death were investigated using a primary cell culture model. In addition, the importance of the disulphide bond in recPrP in relation to oligomer formation was explored using size exclusion chromatography and mass spectrometry, the toxicity of the different resulting oligomer populations were also investigated. Both recPrP oligomers and fibrils were shown to cause toxicity to mouse primary cortical neurons. Interestingly, oligomers were shown to cause apoptotic cell death, while the fibrils did not, suggesting the activation of different pathways. By contrast, recAβ fibrils were shown to be non-toxic to cortical neurons, Aβ oligomers, however, were shown to cause toxicity. Similar to recPrP, my data showed that it is likely that recAβ 1-42 oligomers also cause apoptosis. However, by contrast this seemed to be caused by excitotoxicity, which was not found to be the case for recPrP. Additionally, I have shown that the presence or absence of the disulphide bond in PrP has a profound effect on the size of oligomers which form. RecPrP lacking a disulphide bond leads to the formation of larger oligomers which are highly toxic to primary neurons. Findings from this study suggest that structural properties such as the disulphide bond in PrP can affect the size and toxicity of oligomers, furthermore, whilst oligomers have been shown to be important in both AD and prion diseases, they may not trigger the same pathways leading to cell death.

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are rare, uniformly fatal neurodegenerative disorders that can affect many mammalian species, including humans. A hallmark of these diseases is the conversion of cellular prion protein (PrPC) into an abnormally folded form. This misfolded PrPC is infectious, since it can provide a template for pathogenic conversion of PrPC in a new host. In addition to any toxicity of the misfolded protein, loss of normal PrPC function could be involved in the neurodegenerative processes. However, the physiological role of PrPC is still poorly understood and this project has aimed to address that lack of knowledge. Out of the many putative functions ascribed to PrPC, the most commonly proposed is that it protects cells from stress. In contrast, I have found that stable transfection of the prion protein gene into SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells increases cell death in response to serum removal from the culture medium. Following treatment with several chemical toxins, two out of four stably transfected clones did, generally, display greater viability than untransfected cells that do not express detectable levels of PrPC. However, knockdown of PrPC expression by RNA interference had no effect on this stress resistance, indicating that it may not have been mediated directly by PrPC. Given the lack of robust stress protection afforded by PrPC transfection, proteomic analyses of the cells were carried out to identify alternative processes that were perturbed as a result of PrPC expression. The results obtained suggested roles for PrPC in cytoskeletal organisation and cell cycle regulation. Various proteins involved in cytoskeletal organisation were confirmed by western blotting to be differentially expressed in some or all of the stably transfected clones. Additionally, the expression changes to proteins involved in cell cycle regulation resulted in slower proliferation of the clones compared with untransfected cells, a difference that was reduced following RNA interference-mediated knockdown of PrPC. Taken together, these data suggested that specific growth factor-activated pathways were differentially regulated in the stably transfected clones. One candidate pathway was nerve growth factor (NGF) signalling, which promotes neuronal survival and differentiation as well as regulating various processes outside of the nervous system. PrPC-transfection resulted in altered expression of receptors for NGF, suggesting that the stably transfected clones were, indeed, responding differently to NGF stimulation. However, the molecular mechanism responsible for these expression changes remains to be determined, since co-immunoprecipitation experiments did not identify any physical interactions between PrPC and the NGF receptors. Nonetheless, a role for PrPC in modulating NGF signalling has the potential to explain many of the diverse phenotypic observations in PrPC-null mice and might indicate that loss of PrPC function is an important part of TSE pathogenesis.

The pathological hallmark of many age-related neurodegenerative diseases is the presence of proteinaceous inclusions in nerve cells and glial cells. Alpha-synuclein is the main component of the inclusions of Parkinson’s disease, dementia with Lewy bodies and multiple system atrophy, as well as of rarer diseases, collectively called synucleinopathies. For a long time, it was widely believed that neurodegenerative diseases were cell-autonomous; however, a more recent hypothesis has suggested that some misfolded proteins resemble prions. Thus, aggregated alpha-synuclein shares features of PrPSc, the scrapie form of the prion protein. The aim of this thesis was to further characterize the prion-like properties of aggregated alpha-synuclein by studying the pathways of seeded aggregation, and to identify the species of alpha-synuclein responsible. I present evidence, using a HEK 293T cell model, that filamentous protein was the most seed-potent form of alpha-synuclein. Recombinant aggregated protein, aggregated alpha-synuclein from mice transgenic for A53T alpha-synuclein, as well as alpha-synuclein aggregates from Parkinson’s disease and multiple system atrophy brains, seeded aggregation. The mechanisms of alpha-synuclein internalization and intracellular trafficking, and how these processes affect seeded aggregation, are not fully understood. I showed that internalization of alpha-synuclein aggregates occurs through clathrin- and dynamin-independent, Cdc42-, actin- and PI3K-dependent endocytosis. Alpha-synuclein aggregates are trafficked to the endolysosomal pathway; a small fraction of lysosomes ruptures, which induces aggregation of expressed cytoplasmic alpha-synuclein, and disruption of autophagy, which in turn enhances seeded aggregation. These findings expand knowledge of the prion-like properties of assembled alpha-synuclein and identify novel mechanisms with therapeutic potential.

Cellular prion protein (PrPC ) is a membrane bound glycoprotein. The protein is expressed in all vertebrates, mainly in the nervous system, but it is present also in the cells of gastrointestinal tract, bone marrow, germ cells and heart. PrPC is necessary for pathogenesis of prion diseases, which are deadly and without the possibility of therapy. The pathogenic isoform of prion protein is formed by changing of secondary structure of PrPC and it's the main constituent of infectious prion particles. Pathological form of prion protein accumulates in brain of infected patients and this process is associated with neurodegradation. Physiological function of PrPC is poorly understood. Knock-out of the PrPC gene (PRNP) is not connected with any noticeable phenotype. Potential functions of PrPC are dispersed, protein may have antiapoptotic effect, it can be involved in ions metabolism or in protection against oxidative stress. Latest results show, that PrPC can play important role in cell differentiation. During the differentiation PrPC can influence the development of cells and their typing. It could affect cell cycle and have an influence on formation of nervous system. Aim of the present study was to elucidate, whether the down-regulation of PrPC or infection with prions has an impact on differentiation of...

The dorsal vagal nucleus (DMNX) and nucleus ambiguus (NA) are two anatomically distinct regions of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem involved with the control of the heart on a beat to beat basis. The vagus nerve has parasympathetic cell bodies located in the DMNX and NA. The presence of the disease associated prion (PrPD) in the DMNX and NA is used in the post mortem diagnosis of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) in animals. It has been shown that PrPD alters the neuronal discharge properties of infected tissue (Barrow, Holmgren et al.1999; Collinge, Whittington et al. 1994). I wished to investigate whether a change in heart rate variability (HRV) influenced by the presence of PrPD deposits in brainstem areas of animals and people incubating TSEs would be detectable. Recordings from control and infected sheep, cattle and humans, consisting of three hundred-second samples of electrocardiogram (ECG) were collected from species specific healthy controls and subjects incubating TSE disease. Data were digitised at a sampling frequency of 1kHz and were translated and analysed using standard software (CED Spike2 ; IBM SPSS). Artefacts and missed beats were corrected based upon screening by eye. ECG R-wave timings were obtained in order to determine variability in the R-R intervals. An instantaneous tachogram was constructed from which power spectra were calculated. Power spectral analysis along with simpler time domain estimates of HRV, such as RMSSD, were employed to investigate differences between control and infected animals. In addition R wave variability within each breath was utilized to examine the vagal control of the heart in relation to breathing and thus investigate a change in function of the specific neurological areas of the brainstem used as diagnostic criteria for such diseases. It was found there were significant differences (p<0.05) in the HRV of infected sheep, cattle and humans incubating TSE disease compared to control samples. Repeated non-invasive longitudinal tests may provide a means to screen animals and humans for the presence of disease associated prions and may give applications in the objective assessments of putative therapeutics in addition to identifying TSE disease at a preclinical stage.

Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative diseases that affect mammals, including humans, which are characterized by accumulation of pathologi- cal prion protein isoform (PrPTSE ) in the brain. The animals were commonly used for the prion disease research in the past but in recent years, the tissue cultures are being used as well. Tissue cultures have many advantages com- pared with animals. E.g. the possibility of a detailed study of the biochemical processes associated with prion diseases, and rapid and sensitive PrPTSE de- tecting method. However no reliable in vitro model was developed for human prion diseases so far. We focused on monitoring of transmission and propagation efficiency of different prion strains and on the influence of cultivation conditions on the transfer of the neuronal cell line CAD5, which is highly sensitive to prion infection. We confirmed the sensitivity of CAD5 cells to mouse-adapted scra- pie prion strains and we presented new facts about their ability to propagate mouse adapted prions of human strains and bovine spongiform encepha- lopathy. We have used CAD5 cell sensitivity to be infected with different prion strains in other parts of this work. In the second part, we focused on the cell sensitivity to prion infection and propagation of prion strains under different culture...