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yes / The archetypal prodrug of the imidazotetrazine class is the anticancer agent temozolomide (TMZ). The prodrug activation kinetics of TMZ show an unusual pH dependence: it is stable in acid and rapidly hydrolyses in alkali (Denny, B.J., et al. Biochemistry 1994, 33, 9045–9051). The incipient drug MTIC has the opposite properties—relatively stable in alkali but unstable in acid. In this study, the mechanism of prodrug activation was probed in greater detail to determine whether the reactions are specific or general acid or base catalysed. Three prodrugs and drugs were investigated, TMZ, MTIC and the novel dimeric imidazotetrazine EA27. Hydrolysis in a range of citrate-phosphate buffers (pH 8.0, 7.4, 4.0) was measured by UV spectrophotometry. Reaction of TMZ and MTIC obeyed single-phase, pseudo-first order kinetics (Figure 1). EA27 was more complex, showing biphasic but approximately pseudo-first order kinetics, Figure. General acid or base catalysis indicates that protonation or deprotonation is the rate-limiting step (rls). In biological milieu, the nature and concentration of other acidic or basic solutes may affect the prodrug activation reaction. In contrast, specific acid or base catalysis indicates that protonation or deprotonation occurs before the rls, so catalysis depends only on the local concentration of hydroxide or hydronium ion (i.e., pH) so the reaction kinetics are not expected to change appreciably in a biological medium.

The crystal structures of two thermostable carboxylesterase Est30 and Est55 from Geobacillus stearothermophilus were determined to help understand their functions and applications in industry or medicine. The crystal structure of Est30 was determined at 1.63 Å resolution by the multiple anomalous dispersion method. The two-domain Est30 structure showed a large domain with a modified alpha/beta hydrolase core including a seven, rather than an eight-stranded beta sheet, and a smaller cap domain comprising three alpha helices. A 100 Da tetrahedral ligand, propyl acetate, was observed to be covalently bound to the side chain of Ser94 in the catalytic triad. This ligand complex represents the first tetrahedral intermediate in the reaction mechanism. Therefore, this Est30 crystal structure will help understand the mode of action of all enzymes in the serine hydrolase superfamily. Est55 is a bacterial homologue of the mammalian carboxylesterases involved in hydrolysis and detoxification of numerous peptides and drugs and in prodrug activation. Est55 crystals were grown at pH 6.2 and pH 6.8 and the structures were determined at resolutions of 2.0 and 1.58 Å respectively. Est55 folds into three domains, a catalytic domain, an α/β domain and a regulatory domain. This structure is in an inactive form; the side chain of His409, one of the catalytic triad residues, is pointing away from the active site. Moreover, the adjacent Cys408 is triply oxidized and lies in the oxyanion hole, which would block the entry of substrate to its binding site. This structure suggested a self-inactivation mechanism, however, Cys408 is not essential for enzyme activity. Mutation of Cys408 showed that hydrophobic side chains at this position were favorable, while polar serine was unfavorable for enzyme activity. Both Est30 and Est55 were shown to hydrolyze the prodrug CPT-11 into the active form SN-38. Therefore, Est30 and Est55 are potential candidates for use with irinotecan in cancer therapy. The catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) of Est30 is about 10-fold lower than that of Est55. The effects of the Cys408 substitutions on Est55 activity differed for the two substrates, p-NP butyrate and CPT-11. Mutant C408V may provide a more stable form of Est55.

Glutathione transferase (GST) A2-2 is the human enzyme most efficient in catalyzing azathioprine activation. Structure-function relationships were sought explaining the higher catalytic efficiency compared to other alpha class GSTs. By screening a DNA shuffling library, five recombined segments were identified that were conserved among the most active mutants. Mutational analysis confirmed the importance of these short segments as their insertion into low-active GSTs introduced higher azathioprine activity. Besides, H-site mutagenesis led to decreased azathioprine activity when the targeted positions belonged to these conserved segments and mainly enhanced activity when other positions were targeted. Hydrophobic residues were preferred in positions 208 and 213. The prodrug azathioprine is today primarily used for maintaining remission in inflammatory bowel disease. Therapy leads to adverse effects for 30 % of the patients and genotyping of the metabolic genes involved can explain some of these incidences. Five genotypes of human A2-2 were characterized and variant A2*E had 3–4-fold higher catalytic efficiency with azathioprine, due to a proline mutated close to the H-site. Faster activation might lead to different metabolite distributions and possibly more adverse effects. Genotyping of GSTs is recommended for further studies. Molecular docking of azathioprine into a modeled structure of A2*E suggested three positions for mutagenesis. The most active mutants had small or polar residues in the mutated positions. Mutant L107G/L108D/F222H displayed a 70-fold improved catalytic efficiency with azathioprine. Determination of its structure by X-ray crystallography showed a widened H-site, suggesting that the transition state could be accommodated in a mode better suited for catalysis. The mutational analysis increased our understanding of the azathioprine activation in alpha class GSTs and highlighted A2*E as one factor possibly behind the adverse drug-effects. A successfully redesigned GST, with 200-fold enhanced catalytic efficiency towards azathioprine compared to the starting point A2*C, might find use in targeted enzyme-prodrug therapies.