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In the context of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, we investigated how the nitric oxide (NO) signaling pathway influences intracellular calcium (Ca2+) to mediate alcohol resistance, using a primary cell culture model of cerebellar granule neurons (CGN). Alcohol during fetal brain development triggers abnormally high apoptotic cell death in vulnerable neuronal populations, culminating in serious behavioral and cognitive deficits that persist into adulthood. Prior studies demonstrated that the NO signaling pathway [neuronal nitric oxide synthase → NO → soluble guanylyl cyclase → cyclic guanosine monophosphate → protein kinase G (PKG)] mitigates alcohol toxicity, consequently diminishing neuronal loss both in vivo and in vitro. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ release, a key apoptotic mechanism, requires the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R), a known PKG substrate. Our studies focused on this crucial intersection point where the NO signaling cascade can influence Ca2+-mediated apoptotic mechanisms, and exposed a downstream mechanism where NO can moderate alcohol neurotoxicity. We hypothesized that as alcohol disturbs neuronal Ca2+ homeostasis to trigger cell death, the NO signaling pathway counters it by limiting Ca2+ release from the ER. We examined first the role of the phospholipase C (PLC) pathway [PLC → inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate → IP3R → Ca2+] in developmental neurotoxicity through our in vitro CGN model, extending previous in vivo studies. We found that alcohol terminates developing neurons by eliciting abnormal Ca2+ release from the ER rather than from an extracellular source, via a PLC - IP3R-dependent signaling mechanism. Inhibiting either calcineurin or Ca2+ / calmodulin-dependent protein kinase ii (CaMKii), which participate in parallel Ca2+-activated apoptotic cascades, shielded CGN cultures from alcohol. Blocking the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter or the mitochondrial permeability transition pore also provided neuroprotection. That the activated pathways must interact to generate cell death likely explains why inhibiting one of multiple parallel signaling cascades limits alcohol toxicity. We next demonstrated that activating the NO pathway downstream at PKG eliminated both alcohol-related neuronal death and the accompanying rapid rise in intracellular Ca2+, an effect that markedly resembled IP3R inhibition. Experiments that temporally manipulated the addition of PKG activators in relation to alcohol exposure linked PKG's obstruction of alcohol-induced Ca2+ elevations to alcohol resistance. In contrast, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which does not rely on PKG to provide neuroprotection, failed to block alcohol-induced Ca2+ elevations while preventing alcohol toxicity. This indicates that although PKG blocks alcohol-induced Ca2+ elevations, averting these Ca2+ elevations is not necessary for neuroprotection. BDNF may confer alcohol resistance through an as yet unidentified process downstream from the disruption of intracellular Ca2+. In summary, we established that 1) alcohol induces toxic Ca2+ elevations originating from the ER through a PLC - IP3R-dependent pathway, and that 2) PKG-mediated alcohol resistance is linked to preventing the intracellular Ca2+ surges. These findings support the hypothesis that the NO signaling pathway shields developing neurons from alcohol by limiting Ca2+ release from the ER.

Ο αγγειακός ενδοθηλιακός παράγοντας (VEGF) επάγει την παραγωγή του μονοξειδίου του αζώτου(ΝΟ), το οποίο διαμεσολαβεί πολλές από τις αγγειογενετικές δράσεις του. Μολονότι, γνωρίζουμε ότι ο «υποδοχέας του ΝΟ» διαλυτή γουανυλική κυκλάση (sGC) συμμετέχει στην αγγειογένεση που επάγεται από τον VEGF, ελάχιστα είναι χαρακτηρισμένα τα καθοδικά μόρια- εκτελεστές μέσω των οποίων το cGMP που προέρχεται από την sGC κατευθύνει την αγγειογενετική απάντηση. Για να προσδιορίσουμε την συμμετοχή της PKG (cGMP-dependent protein kinase) στην αγγειογένεση που επάγεται από τον VEGF, χρησιμοποιήσαμε τα πεπτίδια DT2 και DT3, δύο επιλεκτικούς αναστολείς της PKGIα. Έχοντας την απάντηση αυτού του ερωτήματος ως στόχο, πραγματοποιήσαμε in vivo (CAM, μοντέλο του κερατοειδή του ματιού κουνελιού, τροποποιημένη δοκιμασία Miles assay) και in vitro (πολλαπλασιασμός και μετανάστευση ενδοθηλιακών κυττάρων, εκβλάστηση σε δακτυλίους αορτής) μελέτες. Επιπλέον εκτιμήθηκε η ικανότητα του DT2 να παρεμβάλλεται στην μεταγωγή σήματος του VEGF. Επώαση CAM μεμβρανών με τους πεπτιδικούς αναστολείς της PKGIα είχε σαν αποτέλεσμα την μείωση του μήκους των αγγείων με δοσο-εξαρτώμενο τρόπο, με το DT3 να είναι πιο αποδοτικό από το DT2. Επιπρόσθετα παρατηρήσαμε, ότι το DT3 καταργεί την αγγεογενετική απάντηση που προέρχεται από τον VEGF στον κερατοειδή χιτώνα του ματιού κουνελιού. Η αναστολή της PKGI εμποδίζει επίσης την αγγειακή διαρροή που επάγεται από τον VEGF. In vitro, χορήγηση VEGF σε ενδοθηλιακά κύτταρα επάγει την φωσφορυλίωση της VASP στην Ser239 (επιλεκτικό υπόστρωμα για την PKGΙ) μέσω της ενεργοποίησης του VEGFR2 ενώ η συνχορήγηση του DT2 έχει σαν αποτέλεσμα μειωμένα επίπεδα φωσφορυλιωμένης VASP πρωτεΐνης αποδεικνύοντας ότι σε άθικτα κύτταρα διέγερση του VEGFR2 οδήγησε σε ενεργοποίηση της PKGI. Επιπλέον παρατηρήθηκε ότι επώαση των ενδοθηλιακών κυττάρων με DT2 ή DT3 αναστέλλει την διαμεσολαβούμενη από τις ΜΑΡΚ κινάσες ERK1/2 και p38 μετανάστευση, πολλαπλασιασμό και εκβλάστηση τους που επάγονται από τον VEGF. Εν κατακλείδι, παρέχουμε αποδείξεις ότι η PKGI είναι μέρος του μεταγωγικού μονοπατιού που διαμεσολαβεί τις αγγειογενετικές δράσεις του VEGF και ότι οι πεπτιδικοί αναστολείς της PKGI θα μπορούσαν να δοκιμαστούν σε ασθένειες που σχετίζονται με ενισχυμένη αγγειογένεση. / Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) stimulates nitric oxide (NO) production, which mediates many of its angiogenic actions. However, the angiogenic pathways that operate downstream of NO following VEGF treatment are not well characterized. Herein, we used DT2 and DT3, two highly selective cGMP-dependent protein kinase I peptide inhibitors to determine the contribution of PKGI in VEGF-stimulated angiogenesis. Incubation of chicken chorioallantoic membranes (CAM) with PKG-I peptide inhibitors decreased vascular length in a dose-dependent manner, with DT-3 being more effective than DT2. Moreover, inhibition of PKG-I with DT3 abolished the angiogenic response elicited by VEGF in the rabbit eye cornea. PKG-I inhibition, also blocked VEGF-stimulated vascular leakage. In vitro, treatment of cells with VEGF stimulated phosphorylation of the PKG substrate VASP through VEGFR2 activation; the VEGF-stimulated VASP phosphorylation was reduced by DT2. Pre-treatment of cells with DT2 or DT3 inhibited VEGF-stimulated mitogen activated protein kinase cascades (ERK1/2 and p38), growth, migration and sprouting of endothelial cells. The above observations taken together identify PKGI as a downstream effector of VEGFR2 in EC and provide a rational basis for the use of PKG-I inhibitors in disease states characterized by excessive neovascularization

During development, neurons must find their way to and make connections with their appropriate targets. Growth cones are dynamic, motile structures that are integral to the establishment of appropriate connectivity during this wiring process. As growth cones migrate through their environment, they encounter guidance cues that direct their migration to their appropriate synaptic targets. The gaseous messenger nitric oxide (NO), which diffuses across the plasma membrane to act on intracellular targets, is a signaling molecule that affects growth cone motility. However, most studies have examined the effects of NO on growth cone morphology when applied in large concentrations and to entire cells. In addition, the intracellular second messenger cascade activated by NO to bring about these changes in growth cone morphology is not well understood. Therefore, this dissertation addresses the effects that a spatially- and temporally-restricted application of physiological amounts of NO can have on individual growth cone morphology, on the second messenger pathway that is activated by this application of NO, and on the calcium cascades that result and ultimately affect growth cone morphology. Helisoma trivolvis, a pond snail, is an excellent model system for this type of research because it has a well-defined nervous system and cultured neurons form large growth cones. In the present study, local application of NO to Helisoma trivolvis B5 neurons results in an increase in filopodial length, a decrease in filopodial number, and an increase in the intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i). In B5 neurons, the effects of NO on growth cone behavior and [Ca2+]i are mediated via sGC, protein kinase G, cyclic adenosine diphosphate ribose, and ryanodine receptor-mediated intracellular calcium release. This study demonstrates that neuronal growth cone pathfinding in vitro is affected by a single spatially- and temporally-restricted exposure to NO. Furthermore, NO acts via a second messenger cascade, resulting in a calcium increase that leads to cytoskeletal changes. These results suggest that NO may be a signal that promotes appropriate pathfinding and/or target recognition within the developing nervous system. Taken together, these data indicate that NO may be an important messenger during the development of the nervous system in vivo.