The protein degradation process is of vital importance for the cell to maintain cellular functions. An important enzyme in this process is the multimeric tripeptidyl-peptidase II (TPP II). It removes tripeptides from a free N-terminus of the substrates. TPP II has broad substrate specificity and wide-spread distribution, suggesting that the TPP II gene is a house-keeping gene. However, the levels of both mRNA and TPP II protein varies during different conditions and the TPP II gene promoter was therefore identified and characterized. It is a 215 bp fragment just upstream of the coding sequence. This fragment lacks a TATA-box but contains an initiator, two inverted CCAAT-boxes and an E-box. The CCAAT-boxes and the E-box were found to bind the nuclear factor Y (NF-Y) and upstream stimulatory factor-1 (USF-1) respectively. The CCAAT-boxes appear to be most important for the transcriptional activation. Furthermore, several silencer element were identified further upstream of the 215 bp promoter and the octamer binding factor Oct-1 was found to bind one of these fragments. If Oct-1 is responsible for the inhibition of the transcription of the TPP II gene remains to be investigated. In addition, the substrate specificity was investigated. For this purpose an expression system using Pichia pastoris was developed. The purified recombinant TPP II was found to have the same enzymatic properties as the native enzyme. In order to identify the amino acids involved in the binding of the N-terminus of the substrate, wild-type murine TPP II and four mutants E305Q, E305K, E331Q and E331K were purified. Steady-state kinetic analysis clearly demonstrated that both Glu-305 and Glu-331 are important for this binding as the KMapp is more than 102 higher for the mutants than wild-type. Finally, the pH-dependence for cleavage of two chromogenic substrates was compared for TPP II from different species.

To construct a complete map of the human proteome landscape is a vital part of the total understanding of the human body. Such a map could enrich the mankind to the extent that many severe diseases could be fully understood and hence could be treated with appropriate methods. In this study, immunohistochemical (IHC) data from ~6000 proteins, 65 cell types in 48 tissues and 47 cell lines has been used to investigate the human proteome regarding protein expression and localization. In order to analyze such a large data set, different statistical methods and algorithms has been applied and by using these tools, interesting features regarding the proteome was found. By using all available IHC data from 65 cell types in 48 tissues, it was found that the amount of tissue specific protein expression was surprisingly small, and the general impression from the analysis is that almost all proteins are present at all times in the cellular environment. Rather than tissue specific protein expression, the localization and minor concentration fluctuations of the proteins in the cell is responsible for molecular interaction and tissue specific cellular behavior. However, if a quarter of all proteins are used to distinguish different tissues types, there are a proportion of proteins that have certain expression profiles, which defines clusters of tissues of the same kind and embryonic origin. The estimation of expression levels using IHC is a labor-intensive method, which suffers from large variation between manual annotators. An automated image software tool was developed to circumvent this problem. The automated image software was shown to be more robust then manual annotators, and the quantification of expressed protein levels of the stained imaged was in the same range as the manual annotations. A more thorough investigation of the stained image estimations made by the automated software revield a significant correlation between the estimated protein expression and the cell size parameters provided by the automated software. To make it feasible to compare protein expression levels across different cell lines, without the cell line size bias, a normalization procedure was implemented and evaluated. It was found that when the normalization procedure was applied to the protein expression data, the correlation between protein expression values and cell size was minimized, and hence comparisons between cell lines regarding protein expression is possible. In addition, using the normalized protein expression data, an analysis to investigate the degree of correlation between mRNA levels and proteins for 1065 gene products was performed. By using two individual microarray data sets for estimation of RNA levels, and normalized protein data measured by the automated software as estimation of the protein levels, a mean correlation of ~0.3 for was found. This result indicates that a significant proportion of the manufactured antibodies, when used in IHC setup, are indeed an accurate measurement of protein expression levels. By using antibodies directed towards human proteins, plasma samples were investigated regarding metabolic dysfunctions. Since plasma is a complex sample, an optimization regarding protocol for quantification of expressed proteins was made. By using certain characteristics within the dataset, and by using a suspension bead microarray, the protocol could be evaluated. Expected characteristics within the dataset were found in the subsequent analysis, which showed that the protocol was functional. Using the same experimental outline will facilitate future applications, e.g. biomarker discovery. / QC 20100728 / Human Proteome Resource

Plants respond to and defend themselves against a wide range of disease-causing microbes. In order to do so, massive reprogramming of cellular protein expression patterns, which underpin various defense pathways, must occur. A family of basic leucine zipper transcription factors, called TGA factors, has been implicated in mediating this response. The TGA factors themselves are subject to complex regulation; of note, TGA1 and TGA4 are regulated via a reduction of conserved cysteines after treatment with the phenolic signaling molecular salicylic acid, which accumulates following pathogen challenge. Previous studies indicate that TGA factors physically interact in the yeast two-hybrid system with the plant-specific CC-type of glutaredoxin (Grx)-like proteins. Grx are a family of oxidoreductases that are important for maintaining the cellular redox status and often are required to modulate protein activity. The goal of this study was to ascertain the role of these Grx-like proteins in regulating TGA1 redox state. To this end, the expression patterns of several Grx genes were analyzed.<p> Quantitative-reverse-transcriptase PCR (q-RT-PCR) experiments indicated that TGA1 and TGA4 may be involved in down-regulating levels Grx-like gene transcripts after exposure to pathogens or salicylic acid (SA). Furthermore, qRT-PCR experiments also indicated that expression of some Grx-like genes is induced by SA, jasmonic acid (JA), and <i>Pseudomonas syringae</i>. Overexpression of the Grx-like protein, CXXC9, in <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> revealed that it is a regulatory factor in the cross-talk between vi theSA/JA pathways as it is able to suppress expression of PDF1.2, a marker for the JA defense pathway, as determined by qRT-PCR. The â-hydroxy ethyl disulfide (HED) assay was utilized to determine if the CC-type of Grx-like proteins have oxidoreductase activity <i>in vitro</i>. These studies revealed that that the Grx-like proteins do not exhibit oxidoreductase activity in this assay.

Plants respond to and defend themselves against a wide range of disease-causing microbes. In order to do so, massive reprogramming of cellular protein expression patterns, which underpin various defense pathways, must occur. A family of basic leucine zipper transcription factors, called TGA factors, has been implicated in mediating this response. The TGA factors themselves are subject to complex regulation; of note, TGA1 and TGA4 are regulated via a reduction of conserved cysteines after treatment with the phenolic signaling molecular salicylic acid, which accumulates following pathogen challenge. Previous studies indicate that TGA factors physically interact in the yeast two-hybrid system with the plant-specific CC-type of glutaredoxin (Grx)-like proteins. Grx are a family of oxidoreductases that are important for maintaining the cellular redox status and often are required to modulate protein activity. The goal of this study was to ascertain the role of these Grx-like proteins in regulating TGA1 redox state. To this end, the expression patterns of several Grx genes were analyzed.<p> Quantitative-reverse-transcriptase PCR (q-RT-PCR) experiments indicated that TGA1 and TGA4 may be involved in down-regulating levels Grx-like gene transcripts after exposure to pathogens or salicylic acid (SA). Furthermore, qRT-PCR experiments also indicated that expression of some Grx-like genes is induced by SA, jasmonic acid (JA), and <i>Pseudomonas syringae</i>. Overexpression of the Grx-like protein, CXXC9, in <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> revealed that it is a regulatory factor in the cross-talk between vi theSA/JA pathways as it is able to suppress expression of PDF1.2, a marker for the JA defense pathway, as determined by qRT-PCR. The â-hydroxy ethyl disulfide (HED) assay was utilized to determine if the CC-type of Grx-like proteins have oxidoreductase activity <i>in vitro</i>. These studies revealed that that the Grx-like proteins do not exhibit oxidoreductase activity in this assay.

Myocilin, expressed in the trabecular meshwork of the eye, has been linked to inherited primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG). The biological function of myocilin is unknown, but mutant myocilin exhibits a gain-of-function mechanism, aggregating within the endoplasmic reticulum of human trabecular meshwork cells, causing cell stress and eventually apoptosis. After apoptosis occurs, the trabecular meshwork is compromised, leading to an increase in intraocular pressure, a symptom of glaucoma. In this thesis, I have expressed and purified the wild-type olfactomedin (OLF) domain and 24 reported disease-causing variants. I developed a facile thermal stability assay using differential scanning fluorimetry, which follows the unfolding of a protein through the fluorescence of a dye sensitive to hydrophobic regions of a protein. Also in this thesis I have determined melting temperatures for the wild-type and for each of the disease-causing mutants. I have tested the stability of the mutants in the presence of seven osmolytes, with sarcosine and trimethylamine-N-oxide restoring the melting temperature closest to wild-type. Additionally, I expressed and purified three reported single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (E352Q, E396D, K398R), which are considered benign variants. Variants were also compared by circular dichroism, revealing high b-sheet content and wild-type structure. When compared to previous studies, there is a positive correlation between the melting temperature, and previously reported qualitative assays, which measure the mutant myocilin solubility in detergent, secretion from mammalian cells, and aggregation propensity. Taken together, these data give insight into the relationship between glaucoma genotypes and phenotypes.

<p>Recombinant Candida antarctica lipase B was successfullyproduced in the methylotropic yeast Pichia pastoris. Thespecific activities of Candida antarctica lipase B produced inPichia pastoris and commercial Candida antarctica lipase B fromNovozymes were the same. In shake-flask cultivations theexpression levels were about 25 mg L-1. Production levels couldbe increased to 1.5 g L-1, using a fermentor. A model tosimulate growth and oxygen consumption was described. The highcell density growth could be explained by the low maintenancecoefficient of Pichia pastoris. Enrichment of the aeration withoxygen increased the recombinant protein production. The lipasewas also produced as a fusion to a cellulose binding module.The cellulose binding module did not interfere with thespecific activity of the lipase. With this fusion proteincatalytic reactions can be performed in close proximity to acellulose surface. The binding module can also function as anaffinity tag for purification. Establishment of the Candidaantarctica lipase B production system allowed the engineeringof Candida antarctica lipase B variants. Four differentvariants were produced in order to investigate if electrostaticinteractions contributed to enantioselectivity. Theenantioselectivity of two halogenated secondary alcohols wasdoubled for the Ser47Ala variant. Thisimplied thatelectrostatic interactions are important forenantioselectivity. The Trp104His variant showed a decrease inenantioselectivity for all tested substrates. This was causedby an increase in the size of the stereoselectivity pocket.Symmetrical secondary alcohols of different size were used tomap the stereoselectivity pocket. A substituent as large as apropyl or isopropyl could be accommodated in the pocket of theTrp104His variant. In the wild-type lipase thestereoselectivity pocket was estimated to fit an ethyl group.The enzyme variants were subjected to a thermodynamic study, toelucidate changes in the enthalpic and entropic contributionsto enantioselectivity. The enthalpic and entropic contributionschanged for the different lipase variants and werecompensatory. The compensation was not perfect, allowing forchanges in enantioselectivity.</p><p>In general one can conclude that rational design of newenzyme properties, in order to change the substrateselectivity, is feasible if based on a thorough model ofsubstrate enzyme interactions.</p><p><b>Key words:</b>Protein expression, Candida antarctica lipaseB, Pichia pastoris, sitedirected mutagenesis, fermentation,selectivity</p>

<p>Pyrosequencing is a DNA sequencing method based on thedetection of released pyrophosphate (PPi) during DNA synthesis.In a cascade of enzymatic reactions, visible light isgenerated, which is proportional to the number of nucleotidesincorporated into the DNA template. When dNTP(s) areincorporated into the DNA template, inorganic PPi is released.The released PPi is converted to ATP by ATP sulfurylase, whichprovides the energy to luciferase to oxidize luciferin andgenerate light. The excess of dNTP(s) and the ATP produced areremoved by the nucleotide degrading enzyme apyrase.</p><p>The commercially available enzymes, isolated from nativesources, show batch-tobatch variations in activity and quality,which decrease the efficiency of the Pyrosequencing reaction.Therefore, the aim of the research presented in this thesis wasto develop methods to recombinantly produce the enzymes used inthe Pyrosequencing method. Production of the nucleotidedegrading enzyme apyrase by Pichia pastoris expression system,both in small-scale and in an optimized large-scale bioreactor,is described. ATP sulfurylase, the second enzyme in thePyrosequencing reaction, was produced in<i>Escherichia coli</i>. The protein was purified and utilizedin the Pyrosequencing method. Problems associated with enzymecontamination (NDP kinase) and batch-to-batch variations wereeliminated by the use of the recombinant ATP sulfurylase.</p><p>As a first step towards sequencing on chip-format,SSB-(single-strand DNA binding protein)-luciferase and KlenowDNA polymerase-luciferase fusion proteins were generated inorder to immobilize the luciferase onto the DNA template.</p><p>The application field for the Pyrosequencing technology wasexpanded by introduction of a new method for clone checking anda new method for template preparation prior the Pyrosequencingreaction.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>apyrase, Pyrosequencing technology, Z_basictag fusion, luciferase, ATP sulfurylase, dsDNAsequencing, clone checking, Klenow-luciferase, SSB-luciferase,<i>Pichia pastoris, Echerichia coli</i>.</p>

Malaria is a disease of major public health importance, killing approximately one million people and causing about 250 million cases of fever annually. It mostly affects children under the age of five and pregnant women in many developing countries, making it a prominent issue in international health and maternal and child health. The most aggressive form of malaria is caused by the parasite Plasmodium falciparum which is responsible for 80% of infections and 90% of deaths from malaria, and is most prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa. Public Health interventions include the implementation of prevention programs, health education, and chemotherapy. The latter has experienced multiple problems in the past years whereby resistance of the parasite to the available drugs has emerged, rendering the majority of them ineffective. Furthermore, the high cost of those drugs represents a major obstacle to their dispensation in areas of the world where the affected people are often the less fortunate. The enzyme Cytochrome b5 Reductase (cb5r) and its electron acceptor Cytochrome b5 (cb5) play a role in fatty acid elongation, cholesterol biosynthesis, and cytochrome P450-mediated detoxification of xenobiotics. Therefore, these proteins are suitable as potential novel drug targets for malaria. These two proteins have been thoroughly studied in mammals but have to be characterized in microorganisms such as fungi and parasites, including Plasmodium falciparum. It is important to note that plant cb5r has been identified as a novel herbicidal target. Considering the close phylogenetic relationship between plant cb5r and Plasmodium falciparum cb5r, we conclude that these plant inhibitors may also serve as promising candidates for a new class of antimalarial drugs against the parasite. In this project, we want to obtain the biochemical and enzymatic characterization of cb5r and cb5 in order to establish whether these two proteins represent potential novel drug targets in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. This initial work may lead to the development of novel drugs which will consequently affect the field of public health with respect to drug delivery, drug resistance, and drug chemotherapy.

In aquaculture, short term chilled storage has been used to transport brood stock fish embryos for genetic improvement programmes. It is therefore important to understand the effect of chilling on embryos at both developmental and molecular levels. In the present study, gene expression patterns in zebrafish embryos were studied before investigations were carried out on the effect of chilling on gene and protein expression in these embryos. The gene expression results obtained in different developmental stages using conventional PCR showed that, only sox genes were expressed throughout the tested developmental stages from 30% epiboly to 6 somites. Quantitative RT-PCR was then used to investigate sox gene expression patterns during chilling of 50% epiboly stage embryos at 0°C for up to 180 min and also after warming. Significant decreases in sox2 and sox3 expressions were observed when compared to those of controls following chilling whilst significant increases of expressions of the two genes were observed after warming in the embryos chilled for 30 and 60 min. Studies on the impact of cryoprotectant MeOH on sox genes and protein expression showed that 50% epiboly stage zebrafish embryos could tolerate chilling for up to 6 h with or without MeOH. It was observed that expression of all three sox genes were significantly decreased following chilling for 3 h at 0°C. However the degree of decrease was less pronounced in embryos chilled with different concentrations of MeOH. Significant increases in sox genes were observed in hatching stage embryos chilled with 1 M MeOH for 3h but subsequent sox2 and sox19a protein expression was not affected. The effect of long term chilling (18h) on sox gene and protein expression in 50% epiboly stage embryos was also investigated. Improved hatching rates (56% ± 5) were achieved when embryos were chilled with 1 M MeOH + 0.1 M sucrose. Results from gene expression studies showed a stable sox2 gene expression in 18 h chilled embryos in cryoprotectant mixture when compared to that of embryos chilled without cryoprotectant mixture. Similar patterns were observed when the expression of sox2 and sox3 protein was investigated. This is the first study carried out on the effect of chilling in early stage zebrafish embryos at the molecular level. The results obtained from the present study provided useful information on the molecular mechanisms of the effect of chilling on zebrafish embryos and will have important implications in designing chilled storage protocols for fish embryos.

Οι νικοτινικοί υποδοχείς της ακετυλοχολίνης (nAChRs) είναι κατιονικοί δίαυλοι, οι οποίοι ενεργοποιούνται κατόπιν πρόσδεσης κατάλληλου νευροδιαβιβαστή και ευθύνονται για την κυτταρική επικοινωνία δια μέσου της ακετυλοχολίνης. Ο κυριάρχος τύπος νικοτινικών υποδοχέων στον εγκέφαλο των θηλαστικών με υψηλή συγγένεια για νικοτίνη, αποτελείται από α4 και β2 υπομονάδες. Ο συγκεκριμένος τύπος υποδοχέων, είναι υπεύθυνος για την εξάρτηση στην νικοτίνη και θεωρείται ότι εμπλέκεται στις ασθένειες Alzheimer και Parkinson. Για το λόγο αυτό οι συγκεκριμένοι δίαυλοι, αποτελούν έναν σημαντικό στόχο σχεδιασμού και ανάπτυξης φαρμάκων. Στην προσπάθειά μας να αποκτήσουμε υδρόφιλες περιοχές του ανθρώπινου υποδοχέα α4β2 για δομικές μελέτες ικανές να προσδένουν αγωνιστές, εκφράσαμε τα εξωκυττάρια τμήματα των συγκεκριμένων υπομονάδων στο ευκαρυωτικό σύστημα έκφρασης ζύμης Pichia pastoris. Στα αγρίου τύπου εξωκυττάρια τμήματα αλλά και στις μεταλλαγμένες μορφές τους, στις οποίες έχει αντικατασταθεί η κυστινική θηλιά με την περισσότερο υδρόφιλη αντίστοιχη περιοχή της πρωτεΐνης η οποία δεσμεύει ακετυλοχολίνη, δεν παρατηρήθηκε καμία ειδική αλληλεπίδραση με γνωστούς προσδέτες. Κρίθηκε λοιπόν αναγκαίο να εκφράσουμε τα εξωκυττάρια τμήματα διασυνδεόμενα με ένα ολιγοπεπτίδιο 24 αμινοξικών καταλοίπων (AGS)8, ως ένα μόριο. Παρατηρήθηκε λοιπόν ότι το συγκαταμερές β2-24-α4-mECD αλλά όχι το α4-24-β2-mECD είναι αρκετά υδατοδιαλυτό μόριο με πολύ καλές ιδιότητες πρόσδεσης αγωνιστών. Η ιωδινιωμένη επιβατιδίνη (125Ι-επιβατιδίνη) και η τριτιωμένη νικοτίνη ([3Η]-νικοτίνη) δεσμεύονται στο συγκαταμερές β2-24-α4-mECD με σταθερές διάσπασης (Kd) 0,38 και 19 nM αντίστοιχα, τιμές οι οποίες προσεγγίζουν τις αντίστοιχες γνωστές από τη βιβλιογραφία, που προσδίδονται σε ολόκληρο τον ανθρώπινο υποδοχέα α4β2. Επιπλέον, το πόσο ειδική είναι η δέσμευση της 125Ι-επιβατιδίνης φαίνεται και από το γεγονός ότι παρεμποδίζεται συναγωνιστικά από τους αγωνιστές νικοτίνη, κυτισίνη, ακετυλοχολίνη και καρβαμυλοχολίνη με τιμές σταθεράς αναστολής (Κi) ίσες με 20,64, 3,24, 242 και 2254 nM αντίστοιχα. Επιπλέον, επιχειρήθηκε η δημιουργία πενταμερών εξωκυττάριων τμημάτων των ανθρώπινων υπομονάδων α4 και β2. Αρχικά, πραγματοποιήθηκε συνέκφραση καθενός από τα δύο συγκαταμερή (α4-24-β2-mECD και β2-24-α4-mECD), τα οποία φέρουν χαρακτηριστική αλληλουχία έξι ιστιδινών (6xHis), με κάθε εξωκυττάριο τμήμα των μεταλλαγμένων υπομονάδων α4 ή β2 τα οποία φέρουν την χαρακτηριστική αλληλουχία του οκταπεπτιδίου FLAG. Στις περιπτώσεις της συνέκφρασης του συγκαταμερούς α4-24-β2-mECD με καθένα από τα εξωκυτταρικά και μεταλλαγμένα τμήματα των υπομονάδων α4 ή β2 (α4-mECD ή β2-mECD) δεν παρατηρήθηκε δέσμευση με 125Ι-επιβατιδίνη και συνεπώς δεν προχωρήσαμε σε περαιτέρω χαρακτηρισμό. Μόνο στην περίπτωση της συνέκφρασης του συγκαταμερούς β2-24-α4-mECD με το β2-mECD παρατηρήθηκε πρόσδεση με 125Ι-επιβατιδίνη. Επίσης, οι μελέτες δυναμικής σκέδασης φωτός εμφάνισαν μία εκτεταμένη ετερογένεια μεγέθους των τελικών προϊόντων όπως απομονώνονται μέσω της χρωματογραφίας μοριακής διήθησης, αποκλείοντας, τουλάχιστον σε αυτό το σημείο οποιαδήποτε προσπάθεια δομικής μελέτης για τα συγκεκριμένα μόρια. Κατασκευάστηκαν επίσης δύο συγκαταμερή τριμερών (β2-24-β2-24-α4-mECD και β2-24-α4-24-β2-mECD). Δυστυχώς, η ανάλυση μέσω SDS-PAGE και η αποτύπωση κατά Western αποκάλυψε την ύπαρξη ενός μείγματος, το οποίο αποτελείται από ολόκληρα τα μόρια (τριμερή) αλλά και από πολυπεπτίδια στα οποία απουσιάζουν ένα ή και δύο από τα μονομερή εξωκυττάρια τμήματα (διμερή και μονομερή αντίστοιχα). Το συγκεκριμένο αποτέλεσμα υποδηλώνει ότι το σύστημα ετερόλογης έκφρασης το οποίο χρησιμοποιούμε (P. pastoris) αν και είναι κατάλληλο για την έκφραση των λειτουργικών διμερών συγκαταμερών (β2-24-α4-mECD), είναι μάλλον ακατάλληλο για την έκφραση πιο περίπλοκων κατασκευών, πιθανότατα εξαιτίας γεγονότων ομόλογου ανασυνδιασμού των πλασμιδίων πριν ή κατά την ενσωμάτωσής τους στο γονιδίωμα της ζύμης. Ακόμα, ενδιαφέρον είναι το γεγονός ότι το απογλυκοζυλιωμένο συγκαταμερές β2-24-α4-mECD εμφανίζει τις ίδιες ιδιότητες πρόσδεσης αγωνιστών. Επιπροσθέτως, το απογλυκοζυλιωμένο συγκαταμερές β2-24-α4-mECD απομονονέται ως μονομερές, γεγονός το οποίο, σε συνδιασμό με την προηγούμενη παρατήρηση, καθιστά την συγκεκριμένη πρωτεΐνη κατάλληλη να χρησιμοποιηθεί σε δομικές μελέτες και πιθανόν για την φαρμακολογική εκτίμηση καινούργιων και ειδικών αγωνιστών για υποδοχείς α4β2. / Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are ligand-gated cation channels responsible for cell communication via the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. The predominant nAChR subtype in the mammalian brain with a high affinity for nicotine is composed of α4 and β2 subunits. This nAChR subtype is responsible for addiction to nicotine and is thought to be implicated in Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases and therefore presents an important target for drug design. In an effort to obtain water-soluble, ligand-binding domains of the human α4β2 nAChR appropriate for structural studies, we expressed the extracellular domains (ECDs) of these subunits in the eukaryotic expression system Pichia pastoris. The wild-type ECDs and their mutants containing the more hydrophilic Cys-loop from the snail acetylcholine-binding protein (individually expressed or coexpressed) did not demonstrate any specific interaction with ligands. We then linked the mutated ECDs with the 24 amino acid peptide (AGS)8 and observed that the β2-24-α4-mECD concatamer, but not the α4-24-β2-mECD one, exhibited very satisfactory water solubility and ligand binding properties. The 125I-epibatidine and [3H]nicotine bound to β2-24-α4-mECD with dissociation constants (Kd) of 0.38 and 19 nM, respectively, close to the published values for the intact α4β2 nAChR. In addition, 125I-epibatidine binding was blocked by nicotine, cytisine, acetylcholine, and carbamylcholine with inhibition constants (Ki) of 20.64, 3.24, 242, and 2,254 nM, respectively. In addition, we attempted to create pentameric domains of the extracellular human subunits α4 and β2. Initially, we accomplished the coexpression of the particular concatamers, α4-24-β2-mECD and β2-24-α4-mECD, bearing the six histidine tag (6xHis), with each of the mutated extracellular domains of the subunits α4 and β2 (α4-mECD and β2-mECD), bearing the characteristic octapeptide FLAG tag. The coexpression of the concatamer α4-24-β2-mECD with each of α4 or β2-mECD did not lead to binding to 125I - epivatidine and therefore we did not proceed to any further characterization. Only in the case of the coexpression of the concatamer β2-24-α4-mECD with the β2-mECD we observed binding to 125I - epivatidine. Aditionally, the dynamic light scattering studies demonstrated a widespread size heterogeneity of the final product as isolated by gel filtration chromatography, blocking, at least at this point, any further attempt for structural studies of the specific molecules. We then constructed two trimeric concatamers (β2-24-β2-24-α4-mECD and β2-24-α4-24-β2-mECD) . Unfortunately, the analysis by SDS-PAGE and Western blot revealed the presence of a mixture which consists of entire molecules ( trimers ), but also from polypeptides which are missing one or two of the monomer extracellular domains (dimers and monomers, respectively). This result indicates that the heterologous expression system which is used (P. pastoris), is suitable for the expression of functional bilateral concatamers (β2-24-α4-mECD), but is rather unsuitable for the expression of more complex structures, probably due to events of homologous recombination of the plasmids before or during integration into the yeast genome . Interestingly, deglycosylation of the concatamer did not affect its ligand binding properties. Furthermore, the deglycosylated β2-24-α4 ECD existed mainly in monomeric form, thus forming an appropriate material for structural studies and possibly for pharmacological evaluation of novel α4β2 nAChR-specific agonists.