As the world strives towards finding alternative sources of power generation, photovoltaic generation has become an increasingly prevalent alternative energy source on power systems world-wide. This paper studies the effects that incorporating photovoltaic generation has on the existing power systems and their power system protection schemes. Along with the addition of this emerging alternative energy source comes the volatility of PV power generation as cloud-cover produces erratic variations in solar irradiance and PV power production. Such variations in PV power may lead to unfavorable operating conditions and power system failures. The issues addressed in this paper include a study of inverter harmonic levels for variations in DC voltage and power, and a study of power system protection failures caused by cloud-induced PV power variations. Such issues are addressed so as to provide a better understanding of the effects that cloud-induced PV power generation variability has on power systems and its protection schemes.

Hydrogen, as a dense energy carrier with low carbon footprint, will play an important role in energy transition. It only produces water after reaction which is totally environment friendly. There are many different technologies for hydrogen production. Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) is the most largely commercialized technology in the market, but it has a large carbon footprint in its conventional way. An Electrified Steam Methane Reforming (ESMR) has been proposed to improve the reforming efficiency and reduce the carbon footprint. By using biomethane as feedstock, the carbon footprint could be completely removed from the production itself. Water Electrolysis (WE) is now at the beginning stage of large-scale commercializing, but it’s limited due to the high energy consumption which makes this solution rather expensive. In order to decide which technology is better to cater to local climate policies and energy resources’ availabilities, a techno-economic study is essential for the market investigation. This work briefly introduced a technological comparison between the ESMR and WE technologies, followed by a techno-economic analysis in both grid-connected solutions and decentralized solutions. Biomethane is chosen as feedstock of ESMR technologies to produce greener hydrogen. In grid connected cases, the lowest and highest electricity price in SE1 to SE4 are considered to decide the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) range in these 4 areas for WE technologies, and together with the lowest and highest biomethane, LCOH for ESMR technologies are decided. In decentralized cases, wind farm and PV farm are considered to evaluate the LCOH of each technology. Generally speaking, in grid connected cases, SE1 and SE2 in Sweden are better locations to build up the hydrogen production plants due to the cheap electricity price there. ESMR is the least sensitive solution to electricity price fluctuation at an average rate 19.5%, while it’s 64.15% with PEM and 65.45% with AWE. Meanwhile ESMR is also the cheapest among all the technologies.In decentralized cases, wind farm solution is slightly cheaper than PV farm solution for all the technologies. Wind farm is feasible in whole Sweden while PV farm is only available in SE3 and SE4 in south of Sweden due to the geography and climate limitations which restricted the solar radiation conditions.When it comes to a specific solution, there are boundaries across different technologies, e.g., in ESMR, when the grid electricity price is lower than 715 SEK/MWh, grid connected ESMR is cheaper than wind farm ESMR, vice versa.

The variable nature of photovoltaic (PV) generation can cause voltage fluctuations in power distribution systems. Feedback control can be used to minimize the voltage fluctuations. This thesis presents the results obtained from comparing the control performance of two types of PV generation feedback control, namely Volt-VAR control and constant power factor control. A three minute PV generation transient is used to evaluate controller performance, where the transient data used originated from one second measurements taken on an actual PV generator. Using the three minute transient, a set of parametric studies are performed on both feedback control strategies. The performance of the control strategies are compared as to voltage control on the distribution feeder and also to the effect that the control may have on transmission system voltage. In considering transmission system voltage, the reactive power drawn from the substation during the transient is evaluated. Simulation results suggest that the choice of control to be implemented should be based on both transmission and distribution system operational concerns. / Master of Science

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The diffusion of photovoltaic (PV) systems is not only increasing in the current global electricity market, but everywhere there are barriers that are hampering the process. In this thesis the respective barriers for the diffusion of PV systems, as well as the current electricity market of Cape Town, situated in South Africa, will be analysed. The diffusion theory is used to highlight the factors that are affecting the diffusion process. The affecting factors are: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability. In addition to this, the pre-diffusion phase focuses on the importance of the communication between the suppliers, adopters and the government in the diffusion process. Therefore an appropriate methodology was required to conduct this research, this was achieved by using a case study approach. The South African energy market was analysed with respect to the impact of policies, adopters and the suppliers of PV systems. Interviews with six local experts where conducted, to gather primary data from the suppliers’ perspective, mainly regarding how they perceive the barriers for the diffusion of PV systems. The results revealed that the diffusion of PV systems is still in the pre-diffusion stage, and faces numerous barriers. The outcomes of the analysis showed that the barriers could be categorized into four different themes namely: sociotechnical, management, economic and policy. Although the barriers could be categorized into different themes they are interrelated to each other. After analysing the results it became clear that the policies and the lack of involvement and communication of all actors, are the crucial barriers that need to be overcome for an effective diffusion process of PV systems in Cape Town.

The global push for increased renewable energy in power production is reshaping how industries approach energy systems. As the urgency to combat climate change grows, industries are integrating alternative power pathways alongside existing systems. This shift is driven by factors such as renewable energy adoption, energy storage advances, decentralization, electrification, circular economy principles, regulatory support, sustainability goals, and technological progress. These changes not only yield economic benefits but also enhance environmental and social impact. Integrating alternative pathways necessitates strategic planning, optimization, and a phased approach for seamless integration. Through these transformations, industries position themselves as sustainability leaders, align with climate goals, and ensure long-term energy security. The proposed implementation of a photovoltaic (PV) system at SSAB's steel production plant in Borlänge, specifically for forming line 4's electricity needs, will have a positive impact. This integration introduces renewable energy generation, offsetting the load and reducing reliance on the grid during peak hours, potentially leading to lower costs. It aligns with SSAB's environmental goals by curbing emissions, bolsters energy resilience, and aiding peak demand management. However, challenges in grid integration and infrastructure adjustments must be addressed for successful implementation. Overall, this move embodies SSAB's commitment to sustainability and efficient operations.  Through the utilization of simulation tools such as PVsyst and Homer Pro, an extensive study was conducted to investigate diverse scenarios involving combinations of a PV system, hydrogen modules, batteries, and a grid-connected load. The primary aim was to assess the feasibility of these scenarios within the energy system context. By leveraging PVsyst's capabilities for photovoltaic system analysis and Homer Pro's system optimization features, the study comprehensively examines interactions between electricity generation, storage, and consumption. This simulation-driven approach provided valuable insights into the performance dynamics, energy balance, and economic viability of each configuration, aiding in the informed selection of optimal combinations that align with the project's feasibility objectives. The results obtained suggest that the ideal size for the PV system in this context is 2.7 MW, allowing for an annual energy generation of 2.5 GWh. The electricity output aligns well with the yearly demand of 2.4 GWh for Forming Line 4 The results from different scenarios offer valuable insights into how integrating renewable energy and incorporating energy storage affect the overall efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the system. Each scenario was assessed in comparison to the base case of grid connection, uncovering a spectrum of LCOE values. It is noteworthy that the highest LCOE, reaching 0.12 €/kWh, was observed when all renewable resources were combined, whereas the lowest LCOE, at 0.059 €/kWh, was achieved with the PV system-only configuration.

As fossil fuel sources continue to diminish, oil prices continue to increase, and global warming and CO2 emissions keep impacting the environment, it has been necessary to shift energy consumption and generation to a different path. Solar energy has proven to be one of the most promising sources of renewable energy because it is environmentally friendly, available anywhere in the world, and cost competitive. For photovoltaic (PV) system engineers, designing a PV system is not an easy task. Research demonstrates that different PV technologies behave differently under certain conditions; therefore energy production varies not only with capacity of the system but also with the type of module. For years, researchers have also studied how these different technologies perform for long periods of time, when exposed out in the field. In this study, data collected by the Florida Solar Energy Center for periods of over four years was analyzed using two techniques, widely accepted by researchers and industry, to evaluate the long‐term performance of five systems. The performance ratio analysis normalizes system capacity and enables the comparison of performance between multiple systems. In PVUSA Regression analysis, regression coefficients are calculated which correspond to the effect of irradiance, wind speed, and ambient temperature, and these coefficients are then used to calculate power at a predetermined set of conditions. This study allows manufacturers to address the difficulties found on system lifetime when their modules are installed out on the field. Also allows for the further development and improvement of the different PV technologies already commercially available.

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