According to the International Energy Agency, the global Electric Vehicle (EV) sales are experiencing approximately 24% annual growth and the total market could reach 4 million in 2020 and 21.5 million by 2030. However, the mass production of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) to power EV creates concerns over environmental impacts and the long-term sustainability of critical elements for producing the major battery components. Although much investment has been made, it is still imperative to develop an effective LIB production and recycling process. This dissertation demonstrates a green and sustainable paradigm for LIBs where the batteries are manufactured and direct recycled to form a closed loop. The water-based cathode electrode delivers comparable cycle life and rate performance to the ones from the conventional organic solvent-based process. The direct recycling process has the advantages to regenerate the cathode material from electrode instead of decomposing into elements. Utilization of a water-soluble binder enables separating the cathode compound from spent electrodes using water, which is then successfully regenerated to deliver comparable electrochemical performance to the pristine one. When scaled up, the degraded cathode material can be directly regenerated by an optimized relithiation thermal synthesis (RTS) method to resynthesize the homogeneous cathode powder of high quality. The key factors and sintering procedures are studied to ensure the performance of the product. The pilot scale test successfully scales up to Kg-level with recycled output materials delivering good electrochemical performance. To automate the direct recycling process and improve the efficiency, machine learning and sensors are utilized in a novel battery disassembly platform. It can classify different batteries based on their types and sizes. The processing temperature is instantly monitored using thermal imager, and the prediction model is trained to give the prediction for measures taken by a closed loop control system. Furthermore, the image recognition is employed for quality control after the cutting process and the defect can be mitigated to ensure effective dismantling of End-of-life (EOL) batteries. The integration of machine learning techniques makes the elaborate dismantling process safer and more efficient. / Doctor of Philosophy / According to the International Energy Agency, the global Electric Vehicle (EV) sales are experiencing approximately 24% annual growth and the total market could reach 4 million in 2020 and 21.5 million by 2030. However, the mass production of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) to power EV creates concerns over environmental impacts and the long-term sustainability of critical elements for producing the major battery components. In this work, a green and sustainable manufacturing and recycling paradigm for LIBs is ushered and scaled up to pilot-scale test. Compared with the electrodes produced by conventional organic solvent-based process, the water-based electrodes can deliver comparable battery performance, meanwhile reduce the cost as well as the pollution to environment. The spent batteries are successfully regenerated to form the closed loop system with minimal external toxic solvent used. At pilot-scale, Kg-level battery material can be directly regenerated to deliver high-quality cathode powder. It provides the guidance of design parameters for large-scale battery recycling in industry. To automate the direct recycling process and improve the efficiency, machine learning and sensors are utilized in a novel battery disassembly platform. The integration of machine learning techniques makes the elaborate dismantling process safer and more efficient.

The methods of applied behavioral science were used in developing and evaluating a program of resource recovery in a number of local Presbyterian churches. Household aluminum scrap was collected and sold to a local recycling center, and the proceeds were contributed to the established 'Halt Hunger' program of the Presbyterian, U.S., denomination. Behavioral interventions were prompts, proximity of collection container, and feedback; the dependent variable was pounds of aluminum recycled. Results indicated that smaller churches which used frequent prompts tended to have larger collections of aluminum; the location of the collection container did not significantly influence the size of the aluminum collections. Contributing the proceeds from the recycled aluminum to an established church program was reported by participants to be an important incentive for collecting aluminum scrap. Because volunteers collected and transported the scrap aluminum, the program was markedly cost effective. / M.S.

M.S.

This dissertation examines the relationship among practices and policies of waste/ing and economic structures to make visible the implications of vehicle disposal policies for environmental policy and theory. Consequently, I attempt to build upon the small body of literature that is now critically engaging with waste production and resulting actions/inaction in the form of policies of management. In doing this I use waste as a lens to examine the interrelationships among environmental degradation and economic and political structures. Further, I examine these phenomena in relation to a physical object, the automobile, to add materiality to abstract notions of waste as it relates to both the political and the economic. Through vehicle recycling policies, I analyze how underlying economic structures in contemporary capitalism result in specific responses to the "problems" of waste as well as how the related responses, or "solutions" perpetuate an un-ecological industrial system which severely restricts the possibilities of making substantial change in the production of environmental harms. / Ph. D.

Deep-pit caged layer waste which had accumulated for about 2-yr was collected from beneath hens housed on wire mesh cages, was mixed with chopped corn forage and ensiled in 2 kg cardboard containers double lined with polyethylene bags and sealed to study fermentation characteristics and microbial analyses. Proportions of corn forage and caged layer waste, wet basis, were 100:0, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40, 50:50 and 40:60. Corn forage and caged layer waste in ratios of 100:0, 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50 mixtures, were ensiled in 210 liter metal drums doubled lined with polyethylene bags, to study fermentation characteristics, microbial analyses, chemical composition and to conduct a metabolism trial. For both types of silos the pH of the ensiled mixtures increased (P<.01) as level of waste increased. Lactic acid was higher (P<.01) for waste containing silages, compared to corn silage. Total coliforms, fecal coliforms, salmonella, shigella and proteus were decreased or eliminated by ensiling. Dry matter, crude protein, and ash increased (P<.01) with waste levels. In a sheep metabolism trial, 30 wethers were fed diets consisting of the five silages in large silos, also, corn silage with sufficient soybean meal added to increase the crude protein content to that of 70:30 silage was used as a fifth diet. Digestibility of dry matter and organic matter was higher (P<.01) for the corn silage diet, compared to the corn forage-waste silage diets, but the differences were small for organic matter. Within corn forage-waste silages a linear decrease (P<.05) was recorded in dry matter digestibility as caged layer waste increased. Apparent digestibility of dry matter, crude protein, organic matter, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and acid detergent fiber (ADF) was higher (P<.01) for corn silage supplemented with soybean meal, compared with 70:30 corn forage-waste silage diet. Higher (P<.01) N utilization was obtained for sheep fed the corn silage diet, compared with those fed the waste treated silages. No difference (P<.05) in N retention was recorded when sheep were fed 70:30 corn forage-waste silage diet or corn silage supplemented with soybean meal. / Master of Science

The demand for Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has been growing exponentially in recent years due to the proliferation of electric vehicles (EV). A large amount of lithium-ion batteries are expected to reach their end-of-life (EOL) within five to seven years. The improper disposal of EOL lithium-ion batteries generates enormous amounts of flammable and explosive hazardous waste. Therefore, cost-effectively recycling LIBs becomes urgent needs. Lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxides (NCM) are one of the most essential cathode materials for EV applications due to their long cycle life, high capacity, and low cost. In 2008, 18.9% of Lithium-ion batteries used NCM cathode material worldwide while this number increased to 31% six years later. An environment–friendly and low-cost direct recycling process for NCM has been developed in this project. The goal of this project is to recycle the EOL NCM and yield battery-grade NCM with equivalent electrochemical performance compared to virgin materials. In order to achieve this goal, four different heat treatment conditions are investigated during the direct recycling process. From the experimental results, the charge and discharge capacities of the recycled material are stable (between 151-155 mAh/g) which is similar to that of the commercial MTI NCM when sintered at 850 °C for 12 hours in the air. In addition, the cycling performance of recycled NCM is better than the commercial MTI NCM up to 100 cycles. / Master of Science / The demand for Lithium-ion batteries has been growing exponentially in recent years due to the proliferation of electric vehicles. A large amount of lithium-ion batteries are expected to reach their end-of-life within five to seven years. The improper disposal of end-of-life lithium-ion batteries generates enormous amounts of flammable and explosive hazardous waste. Therefore, cost-effectively recycling Lithium-ion batteries becomes urgent needs. Lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxides are one of the most essential cathode materials for electric vehicles applications due to their long cycle life, high capacity, and low cost. In 2008, 18.9% of Lithium-ion batteries used Lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxides cathode material worldwide while this number increased to 31% six years later. An environment–friendly and low-cost direct recycling process for Lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxides material has been developed in this project. The goal of this project is to recycle the end-of-life manganese oxides cathode material. In order to achieve this goal, four different heat treatment conditions are investigated during the direct recycling process. From the experimental results, the cycling performance of recycled NCM is better than the commercial MTI NCM.

Fifteen curbside recycling programs in the United States, from communities representing a variety of economic, geographic and political situations, were reviewed in this study. Case studies were analyzed and discussed with respect to four areas of interest to program planners: administration, operations, promotion and evaluation. No objective rating of the programs was attempted, but approaches were reviewed with respect to their ability to satisfy the goals of the programs. Comparisons of participation rates, waste diversion rates, and costs were used cautiously because of the inconsistencies in how the data were developed from program to program. Administrative approaches found in the case studies included: (a) complete ownership of the collection and processing system by municipalities; (b) contracted service by private waste management firms; (c) contracted or subsidized service by non-profit organizations; and (d) combinations of municipal, private, and non-profit services. Operational systems were examined with respect to the effectiveness of the service in stimulating participation, given the practical, political, and budgetary constraints. Variables of operation are closely related and include: (a) which materials are collected; (b) the degree of materials separation required; (c) the type of collection vehicle(s) used; (d) collection frequency and coincidence with garbage collection; (e) the provision of in home containers; and (t) the extent of post-collection materials processing. Four categories of promotional techniques used in curbside recycling programs were discussed: (a) publicity and education; (b) personal contact; (c) economic incentives; and (d) ordinances mandating source-separation. The impacts of these techniques on participation in the case study programs were discussed. Techniques for evaluating the efficacy of curbside recycling programs were also discussed. Participation rates, waste diversion rates, and cost were reviewed with respect to current usage and recommendations were made for increasing their usefulness as indicators of the success of programs or program elements. / Master of Science

Excess nitrogen (N) excretion from animal agriculture results in reduced air and water quality, and poses a risk to human health. Although the dairy industry utilizes milk urea N (MUN) to monitor protein feeding and N excretion, phenotypic diversity among cows may influence MUN and thus bias feed management. An initial study using data from 2 previously published research trials and a field trial, observed that cow had a significant effect on MUN variation. Regression models, utilized to predict MUN, corrected for dietary nutrients and some animal effects, and thus the observed effect of cow on MUN variation may reflect genetic selection decisions of animals with either poor or efficient urea transport. A second trial observed that MUN and PUN concentrations were positively correlated with gut urea clearance, providing evidence for differences in urea transport activity among cows. The presence of urea transport variation suggests that current protein recommendations may not estimate true requirements. A third trial observed that animals fed sub-NRC levels of RDP and RUP had reduced N intake and excretion of fecal N, urinary urea-N, and MUN. Animals maximized N efficiency and had no loss in milk production, suggesting a possible overestimation of RDP and RUP in the current NRC prediction model. The present project provides evidence for phenotypic variation among cows, which may be partially explained by differences in urea transport activity. Future work confirming genetic variation among urea transporters may provide an opportunity to improve feeding management if cow urea efficiency is known. / Master of Science

End-of-life lithium-ion batteries retired from portable electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and power grids need to be properly recycled to save rare earth metals and avoid any hazardous threats to the environment. The recycling process of a Lithium-ion Battery Cell/Module includes storage, transportation, deactivation, disassembly, and material recovery. This study focused on the disassembly step and proposed a systematic method to recover cathode active coating, which is considered the most valuable component of a LIB, from end-of-life LIB pouch cells. A semi-destructive disassembly sequence is developed according to the internal structure of the LIB cell. A fully automated disassembly line aiming at extracting cathode electrodes is designed, modeled, prototyped, and demonstrated based on the disassembly sequence. In order to further obtain the coating material, the extracted cathode electrodes are treated with the organic solvent method and the relationship between process parameters and cathode coating separation yield is numerically studied with the help of Design of Experiment (DOE). Regression models are then fitted from the DOE result to predict the cathode coating separation yield according to combinations of the process parameters. The single cell material separation methodology developed in this study plays an important role in the industrial application of the direct recycling method that may dominate the battery recycling market due to its environmental friendly technology and high recovery rate regardless of element type in the short future. / Doctor of Philosophy / The bursting demand of lithium-ion batteries from portable electronics, electric vehicles, and power grids in the past few years not only facilitate the booming of the lithium-ion battery market, but also put forward serious global concerns: Where should these batteries go at their end-of life and how should they be treated in a safe and harmless manner. As a metal enriched "city mine", end-of-life LIBs are expected to be properly stored, transported, deactivated, disassembled, and recovered with sufficient safety precautions to prevent fire, explosion or any hazardous emissions. This study focuses on the disassembly procedure and emphasized automated battery disassembly techniques and the improving of material separation efficiency. A disassembly sequence of the pouch cell is scheduled and optimized for the first time. To realize the scheduled sequence, a fully automated pouch cell disassembly system is designed to achieve semi-destructive disassembly of z-folded pouch cells. Fixtures, transporters and end-effectors were prototyped and assembled into the modularized disassembly line which extracts cathode electrodes as final product. Cathode electrodes as the most valuable component in a LIB then need to go through multiple chemical-mechanical treatments to future separate cathode coating and Al current collector. This study utilized DOEs to optimize the operating parameters of the material separation process for Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) coating and Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) coating. Regression models are successfully established for yield prediction with certain levels of control factors.

The production of second generation biofuels -- cellulosic ethanol from renewable lignocellulosic biomass has the potential to lead the bioindustrial revolution necessary to the transition from a fossil fuel-based economy to a sustainable carbohydrate economy. Effective release of fermentable sugars through biomass pretreatment followed by enzymatic hydrolysis is among the most costly steps for emerging cellulosic ethanol biorefineries. In this project, two pretreatment methods (dilute acid, DA, and cellulose solvent- and organic solvent-lignocellulose fractionation, COSLIF) for corn stover were compared. It was found that glucan digestibility of the corn stover pretreated by COSLIF was much higher, along with faster hydrolysis rate, than that by DA- pretreated. This difference was more significant at a low enzyme loading. Quantitative measurements of total substrate accessibility to cellulase (TSAC), cellulose accessibility to cellulase (CAC), and non-cellulose accessibility to cellulase (NCAC) based on adsorption of a non-hydrolytic recombinant protein TGC were established to find out the cause. The COSLIF-pretreated corn stover had a CAC nearly twice that of the DA-pretreated biomass. Further supported by qualitative scanning electron microscopy images, these results suggested that COSLIF treatment disrupted microfibrillar structures within biomass while DA treatment mainly removed hemicelluloses, resulting in a much less substrate accessibility of the latter than of the former. It also concluded that enhancing substrate accessibility was the key to an efficient bioconversion of lignocellulose. A simple method for determining the adsorbed cellulase on cellulosic materials or pretreated lignocellulose was established for better understanding of cellulase adsorption and desorption. This method involved hydrolysis of adsorbed cellulase in the presence of 10 M of NaOH at 121oC for 20 min, followed by the ninhydrin assay for the amino acids released from the hydrolyzed cellulase. The major lignocellulosic components (i.e. cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) did not interfere with the ninhydrin assay. A number of cellulase desorption methods were investigated, including pH adjustment, detergents, high salt solution, and polyhydric alcohols. The pH adjustment to 13.0 and the elution by 72% ethylene glycol at a neutral pH were among the most efficient approaches for desorbing the adsorbed cellulase. For the recycling of active cellulase, a modest pH adjustment to 10.0 may be a low-cost method to desorb active cellulase. More than 90% of cellulase for hydrolysis of the pretreated corn stover could be recycled by washing at pH 10.0. This study provided an in-depth understanding of biomass saccharification for the production of cellulosic ethanol for cellulose hydrolysis and cellulase adsorption and desorption. It will be of great importance for developing better lignocellulose pretreatment technologies and improving cellulose hydrolysis by engineered cellulases. / Master of Science