Studies in numerous animal taxa demonstrate that early rearing experience has a profound influence on the development of later adaptive behavior. This has implications for endangered species management, particularly when animals are reared in captivity for reintroduction or in cases in which species managers play an active role in managing animals at the individual or population levels. The California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) is a critically endangered New World vulture that was subject to a period of extinction in the wild followed by ongoing reintroduction in portions of its native range. Though the reintroduced population in southern California is largely adapting well, several obstacles to viability remain that are primarily anthropogenic in nature. The purpose of this study was to quantitatively assess nesting behavior of free-flying California condors in the southern California population to determine whether differences in parental care and nestling behavior are attributable to parental rearing conditions and experience. Hierarchical generalized linear modeling was used to analyze parent and chick activity budget data. Differences among condors were not detected in attendance patterns across either the egg or chick phases of nesting. Variation was not detected among chicks in proportion of time spent active and inactive during the early nestling phase. Variations among older nestlings in the proportion of time spent inactive were observed, with associations detected between inactivity, pair, visibility and season. The proportion of time that parents interacted with nestlings varied from nest to nest, with associations detected between interaction, visibility and season. Finally, potential pair-level variation in the propensity to bring microtrash to the nest was observed. It is concluded that while visibility is often overlooked in behavioral analyses, it is methodologically important to account for this variable in analyses of condor nestling behavior. Further, while some pair-level variation in allocation of care to nestlings is apparent, this appears to be a function of factors not related to individual developmental differences.

Reintroduction of captive-bred Western Burrowing Owls (Athene cunicularia hypugaea) in the Nicola Valley, British Columbia, has had limited success in increasing the local breeding population. Traditionally, yearling captive-hatched Burrowing Owls that were paired and released into artificial burrows in the field, held overnight, and provided with supplemental food throughout the breeding season (hard release) have had high post-release dispersal and mortality. In 2005 and 2006, I used an alternative soft-release technique to test for an improvement upon the hard-release technique. The soft release followed the same procedure as the traditional hard release but also included enclosures around burrow entrances to contain the owls for a 2-week period in the field prior to release. I compared immediate post-release dispersal, seasonal survival, and reproductive success for 37 hard-released and 30 soft-released pairs. I radio-tagged 39 of these released owls in order to accurately monitor their activities, regardless of whether they remained at release sites or dispersed. The soft-release technique led to 20% more owls remaining at the release sites, 14% more owls surviving the breeding season, and 20% more owl pairs fledging juveniles. In addition to investigating adult survival and reproductive success, I examined post-fledging juvenile survival, local recruitment, and habitat use, and adult prey consumption behaviour in order to assess the potential of these aspects to limit the success of the reintroduction. Survival and local recruitment rates of the juveniles of captive-bred adults released with two different techniques were similar to that of juveniles of wild adults in the same study area or in other parts of the Burrowing Owl's range. Juvenile habitat-selection analyse sidentified the importance of rangeland, and comparisons of prey consumption revealed the rapid development of foraging abilities by captive-bred Burrowing Owls. I concluded that these aspects of the owl's ecology were not negatively affected by a captive upbringing, and therefore not likely limiting the success of the reintroduction. Overall, the use of an enclosure-based soft-release technique addresses major limitations to the success of releases, and shows promise for increasing the breeding population in this region. This approach can also be applied to recovery efforts throughout the Burrowing Owls' range, and provide guidelines for other species' reintroduction programs.

An estimated 90% of resident sculpin (Cottus asper and C. aleuticus) were impacted by a spill of 45,000 litres of sodium hydroxide, which occurred on the Cheakamus River, British Columbia on August 5, 2005. This study examined sculpin biology, life history, how sculpins are recovering from the impact, and whether they are re-entering the Cheakamus River from the adjacent Squamish and Mamquam Rivers. Sculpins were sampled in the three river systems via minnow trapping and electrofishing. Morphometric data were recorded and fin clips were taken as deoxyribonucleic acid vouchers to validate field species identification and to determine population distinctiveness among the three systems. Populations were not distinct, suggesting recolonization from other rivers is occurring. The data show sculpins will undergo seasonal downstream spawning migrations and also suggest sculpins are opportunistic habitat colonizers. This research bears useful implications for the adaptive management, recovery, and sustainability of sculpins in the Cheakamus River.

The noble crayfish (Astacus astacus) is critically endangered in Sweden. This is mainly due to the crayfish plague (Aphanomyces astaci), a lethal disease that, among other things, can be spread through the stocking of fish from contaminated water or contaminated fishing gear. The largest single propagation path is the illegal introduction of infected signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus). A conservation measure for crayfish is to re-introduce it to where it has a chance to survive, though a sustainable, locally regulated fishing can also serve as an indirect protection for the species. When the local inhabitants are allowed to keep their fishing culture and when fishing is acceptable, the incentive for illegal stocking of signal crayfish is low. However, it is important to avoid overfishing because the recovery, especially in the northern regions, can take several years. Therefore, it is important to know how crayfish respond long-term to fishing and environmental factors. Crayfish populations became extinct in the River Ljungan for unknown reasons in 1999. The water flow of the river has been used for activities such as fishing, timber transport and hydroelectric power since the 1500s, and the noble crayfish has been part of the fauna since the last century. The River Ljungan was known as one of Sweden's best fishing areas for crayfish and fishing became an important part of the local tradition. When the crayfish populations became extinct, a reintroduction program was a natural step, and crayfish are nowadays re-established in the river. From 1963 to 1990 the Swedish Board of Fisheries collected data from crayfish fishing in the River Ljungan to determine the economic damage to fishery owners caused by the construction of a power plant. After each season the fishermen reported the catch. In this thesis, the data was used to investigate which factors influence the long-term size of the crayfish catch and how the crayfish catches were affected by the power plant building. After re-introduction of the crayfish to the River Ljungan, the local fishermen monitored the population development in a simple, standardized way. To examine the validity of their measurements and to investigate the body growth of the individuals, a capture-recapture technique with a permanent marking of the crayfish was used. The crayfish catches were primarily impacted by the previous years' catch size, and a large catch the previous year resulted in a reduced catch the following year. A mild winter climate (NAO-index > -0.7) six years before the catch implied a large catch, whereas a high water flow during the autumn or spring (>95m3s-1) two years before the catch, implied a poor catch. Major habitat changes in the form of greatly reduced water flow (~90%) were negative for crayfish catches. The standardized method of fishing used by the local fishermen to monitor the development of the crayfish population was precise enough to detect population trends and this method can therefore be recommended to monitor future re-introductions of crayfish. Although the River Ljungan is located at the northern edge of the species' range, noble crayfish in the river presently have a body growth rate that is close to the maximum measured for crayfish (8 mm/moult for females and 10 mm/moult for males). Based on the results, the most important advice for sustainable fisheries in Ljungan and other northern rivers is to: Monitor the population trends, NAO-index and water flow in May and October.  Use the results from the monitoring to determine the number of allowed fishing days and traps. Collect data about the catch size and efforts from legal fishing and use it to evaluate the sustainability of the fishing. Enhance the buildup of the harvestable cohort by -saving reproductive females -introduce a size limit of 10 cm -provide proper shelters for the non-harvestable cohort. / Flodkräftan (Astacus astacus) är akut hotad i Sverige främst på grund av kräftpest (Aphanomyces astaci). Kräftpest är en dödlig sjukdom som bland annat kan spridas vid fiskutsättningar från smittade vatten eller med smittade fiskeredskap. Den enskilt största spridningsvägen är illegala introduktioner av smittade signalkräftor (Pacifastacus leniusculus). En bevarandeåtgärd för flodkräfta är att återintroducera den till lokaler där den har chans att överleva, men ett hållbart fiske med lokal styrning kan också fungera som ett indirekt skydd för arten. När lokalbefolkning tillåts att behålla sin fiskekultur och fisket är bra, blir incitamentet för illegal inplantering av signalkräfta lågt. Men det är viktigt att undvika överfiske då återhämtning, speciellt i nordlig miljö kan ta åtskilliga år. Därför är det betydelsefullt att veta hur flodkräftan svarar på fiske och omgivningsfaktorer i det långa loppet. Flodkräftbeståndet dog, av okänd anledning, ut i Ljungan 1999. I Ljungans flöde har det fiskats, flottats timmer och utvunnits vattenkraft etc. sedan 1600-talet och under det senaste århundradet har flodkräftan varit en del av Ljungans fauna. På sin tid var det en av Sveriges bästa lokaler för flodkräfta. Kräftfisket blev en viktig del av den lokala traditionen, så när kräftbeståndet dog ut var återintroduktion en självklarhet och flodkräftan har åter sin hemvist i älven. Under perioden 1963 till och med 1990 samlade Fiskeriverket in data från kräftfisket i Ljungan för att fastställa den ekonomiska skadan som fiskerättsägarna åsamkats i samband med ett kraftverksbygge. Efter varje säsong fick fiskarna rapportera hur fisket gått. I den här avhandlingen, har det materialet använts för att undersöka vilka faktorer som påverkar kräftfångstens storlek på lång sikt och hur kräftfångsterna påverkades av kraftverksutbyggnaden. Efter återintroduktionen av flodkräfta till Ljungan mättes beståndsutvecklingen på ett enkelt, men standardiserat sätt av de lokala fiskevårdsområdena. För att undersöka validiteten av deras mätningar och hur kräftornas individuella utveckling fortskred, användes fångst- och återfångstteknik, med permanent märkning av kräftorna. Kräftfångsternas storlek påverkades främst av tidigare års fångststorlek; en stor fångst föregående år innebar minskad fångst följande år. Ett milt vinterklimat (NAO-index > -0.7) sex år före fångst innebar bättre fångster, medan höga vattenflöden höst och vår (>95m3s-1) två år före fångsttillfället innebar sämre fångst. Större habitatförändringar i form av kraftigt reducerade vattenflöden (~90%) var negativt för kräftfångsterna. Den standardiserade metoden som fiskevårdsområdena använt för att mäta beståndsutvecklingen var tillräckligt precis för att påvisa populationsutvecklingen och kan därför rekommenderas också för uppföljning av andra återintroduktioner av flodkräfta. Trots att Ljungan ligger i norra kanten av flodkräftans utbredningsområde har flodkräftorna i Ljungan för närvarande en kroppstillväxt som är nära den maximala som uppmätts för flodkräfta (8 mm/ömsning för honor och 10 mm/ömsning för hannar). Utifrån resultaten är de viktigaste råden för ett hållbart fiske i Ljungan och andra nordliga vattendrag att: Övervaka kräftstammens utveckling, NAO-index samt vattenflöde i maj och oktober.  Använda resultaten från övervakningen för att bestämma antalet tillåtna fiskedagar och burar. Samla in data om fångststorlek och hur många burnätter som faktiskt gjordes under säsongen. Använda data för att utvärdera fiskets hållbarhet. Stärka uppbyggnaden av den fångstbara storleken genom att -spara reproduktiva honor -införa en storleksgräns på 10 cm -tillse att det finns gömslen för kräftor av icke-fångstbar storlek.

The Southern Ground Hornbill (SGH) (Bucorvus leadbeateri) has recently been listed globally by the IUCN Red list as Endangered or Critically Endangered. In South Africa, the declining population of the SGH has led it to be listed nationally as Vulnerable and falls under the “Protected Species” legislation. Research into the habitat preferences and identification of suitable reintroduction areas have been few since the initiation of reintroduction attempts, therefore resulting in mixed outcomes of previously-reintroduced SGH. The aim of this study was to identify and verify optimal reintroduction sites for the SGH, in the Musina area in the Limpopo Province. Five main objectives were determined, namely: to identify optimal reintroduction areas; to develop a habitat profile of the designated area; to determine the availability of prey items; to determine the availability of large trees needed for nesting and roosting; to evaluate pre-release sites by involving a number of stakeholders. Three study sites were selected on the farm Greyghost Safaris (Ludwigslust), each made up of a different plant community. Sampling was carried out a total of four times during the year: one sampling bout in each season. A niche-based modelling technique was used to describe the suitability of a particular habitat (“ecological space”) then used to project it onto another geographical space. Floristic and faunal surveys were conducted to determine the species composition of prey items and composition and frequency of the herbaceous and woody layer. High-resolution, natural-colour aerial imagery was used in order to determine the availability of trees for nesting and roosting. Pre-release site evaluations and stakeholder engagements were conducted by means of interviews with landowners on and around the study sites. The Limpopo River Valley and across to the KNP on the eastern border of the Limpopo Province, is suitable re-introduction sites for the SGH. This study site provided a good opportunity to explore what an optimal site for reintroduction should resemble. / Thesis (MSc (Zoology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The Southern Ground Hornbill (SGH) (Bucorvus leadbeateri) has recently been listed globally by the IUCN Red list as Endangered or Critically Endangered. In South Africa, the declining population of the SGH has led it to be listed nationally as Vulnerable and falls under the “Protected Species” legislation. Research into the habitat preferences and identification of suitable reintroduction areas have been few since the initiation of reintroduction attempts, therefore resulting in mixed outcomes of previously-reintroduced SGH. The aim of this study was to identify and verify optimal reintroduction sites for the SGH, in the Musina area in the Limpopo Province. Five main objectives were determined, namely: to identify optimal reintroduction areas; to develop a habitat profile of the designated area; to determine the availability of prey items; to determine the availability of large trees needed for nesting and roosting; to evaluate pre-release sites by involving a number of stakeholders. Three study sites were selected on the farm Greyghost Safaris (Ludwigslust), each made up of a different plant community. Sampling was carried out a total of four times during the year: one sampling bout in each season. A niche-based modelling technique was used to describe the suitability of a particular habitat (“ecological space”) then used to project it onto another geographical space. Floristic and faunal surveys were conducted to determine the species composition of prey items and composition and frequency of the herbaceous and woody layer. High-resolution, natural-colour aerial imagery was used in order to determine the availability of trees for nesting and roosting. Pre-release site evaluations and stakeholder engagements were conducted by means of interviews with landowners on and around the study sites. The Limpopo River Valley and across to the KNP on the eastern border of the Limpopo Province, is suitable re-introduction sites for the SGH. This study site provided a good opportunity to explore what an optimal site for reintroduction should resemble. / Thesis (MSc (Zoology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Increasing and unsustainable demands on Africa's natural resources are having a profound effect on wild primate populations. Whilst wild populations are decreasing, numbers of orphaned primates, sanctuaries and attempts to reintroduce primates back to the natural environment, are increasing. Data were collected on the present status of African ape sanctuaries from questionnaires distributed to sanctuary managers. Across Africa there are 18 sanctuaries housing over 500 African great apes. Facilities and ideologies vary but the majority of sanctuaries profess a commitment to conservation through education, local capacity building, facilitating the enforcement of wildlife laws and other activities. From 1996 to 2001 the non-governmental organisation Habitat Ecologique et Liberte des Primates has released 37 wild-born chimpanzees(Pan troglodytes troglodytes) from an island sanctuary to mainland forest in the Conkouati-Douli National Park, Republic of Congo. Twenty-seven chimpanzees have been successfully reintroduced, three are known to have died and the status of seven remains unknown. This thesis investigated the behavioural adaptation of 15 of these released chimpanzees and reviews the reintroduction process employed. Analyses of post-release behavioural data revealed that activity budgets and diet were comparable to those of wild chimpanzees, and that seasonal variation influenced feeding behaviour and plant speciess election. The chimpanzees utilised both terrestrial and arboreal zones and all nested in trees. A number of recommendations are made for future reintroduction projects. These include selecting a release site that has no, or a low density of, wild conspecifics; developing a relationship of trust between chimpanzee and caretakers without excessive dependency; using the release site for pre-release training; use of radio telemetry; post-release support and monitoring. This study has revealed the many complex factors that are involved in the reintroduction process. Future attempts to reintroduce chimpanzees should be guided by the experiences and recommendations of the present study to maximise success.

Reintroduction of captive-bred Western Burrowing Owls (Athene cunicularia hypugaea) in the Nicola Valley, British Columbia, has had limited success in increasing the local breeding population. Traditionally, yearling captive-hatched Burrowing Owls that were paired and released into artificial burrows in the field, held overnight, and provided with supplemental food throughout the breeding season (hard release) have had high post-release dispersal and mortality. In 2005 and 2006, I used an alternative soft-release technique to test for an improvement upon the hard-release technique. The soft release followed the same procedure as the traditional hard release but also included enclosures around burrow entrances to contain the owls for a 2-week period in the field prior to release. I compared immediate post-release dispersal, seasonal survival, and reproductive success for 37 hard-released and 30 soft-released pairs. I radio-tagged 39 of these released owls in order to accurately monitor their activities, regardless of whether they remained at release sites or dispersed. The soft-release technique led to 20% more owls remaining at the release sites, 14% more owls surviving the breeding season, and 20% more owl pairs fledging juveniles. In addition to investigating adult survival and reproductive success, I examined post-fledging juvenile survival, local recruitment, and habitat use, and adult prey consumption behaviour in order to assess the potential of these aspects to limit the success of the reintroduction. Survival and local recruitment rates of the juveniles of captive-bred adults released with two different techniques were similar to that of juveniles of wild adults in the same study area or in other parts of the Burrowing Owl's range. Juvenile habitat-selection analyse sidentified the importance of rangeland, and comparisons of prey consumption revealed the rapid development of foraging abilities by captive-bred Burrowing Owls. I concluded that these aspects of the owl's ecology were not negatively affected by a captive upbringing, and therefore not likely limiting the success of the reintroduction. Overall, the use of an enclosure-based soft-release technique addresses major limitations to the success of releases, and shows promise for increasing the breeding population in this region. This approach can also be applied to recovery efforts throughout the Burrowing Owls' range, and provide guidelines for other species' reintroduction programs.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Pretoria, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 228-250).

The American marten (Martes americana) is an endangered species in Vermont and a Regional Species of Greatest Conservation Need in the northeastern United States. Though historically widespread in northeastern forests, their range presumably contracted to northern Maine and the High Peaks region of the Adirondacks by the early 1900s. Regionally, populations appear to be in recovery. Natural recolonization is believed to have occurred in New Hampshire, northeastern Vermont and the western Adirondacks. A reintroduction effort in southern Vermont that was originally declared unsuccessful is now believed to be the source of a recently detected population in the area. However, our current knowledge of distribution, population history and population connectivity relies primarily on occurrence data from harvest records, which are limited in scope and resolution. In Vermont, where population size is estimated to be extremely low, more robust estimates of population status may be critical to continued recovery. I genotyped individuals from Maine, New York, New Hampshire, northeastern Vermont and southern Vermont at ten microsatellite loci and amplified a 320 base pair segment of the control region of mtDNA to estimate the source(s) of the two Vermont populations using statistical tests of genetic differentiation. I also used Bayesian and stochastic genetic clustering methods to estimate population genetic structure in the northeastern United States. Genetic structure exists at multiple scales in the region as a result of natural barriers to gene flow, human-mediated gene flow, and lineage sorting in relic populations. My results suggest that New Hampshire is a major source of colonization of northeastern Vermont and the population in southern Vermont is either a remnant of the reintroduction or a pre-reintroduction relic that has experienced introgression from the reintroduction stock. I identified three regions where relic populations perceived to be extirpated in the 1900s may have persisted. I also developed an occupancy model for American marten in the northeastern United States using mixed-effects logistic regression based on expert opinion data. Eighteen experts from Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont and New York with backgrounds in trapping, wildlife management, and wildlife science participated in the survey. Experts were asked to estimate the probability of marten occupancy at 30 sites in the northeastern United States. Three top models described the data. Habitat covariates in those models were 1) percent canopy cover, 2) percent spruce-fir forest cover, 3) winter temperature, 4) elevation, and 5) road density. An AIC-weighted average of these three models had significant predictive ability (area under an ROC curve = 0.88) with respect to occurrence records in the northeastern United States. In addition, the model predicted that high quality habitat existed patchily along the central and northern Green Mountain spine in Vermont – where no occurrence records exist for at least a century. Top-scoring movement corridors between southern Vermont and nearby populations in northeastern Vermont/New Hampshire and New York occurred in the northern and central Green Mountains and across high resistance movement barriers in the Champlain valley. Corridors to New York were considered strong movement barriers and are unlikely to facilitate gene flow.