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Research on efficient management systems to optimise Trifolium repens-Rhizobium symbiosis, is lacking in South Africa. The amount of nitrogen (N) fixed by symbiotic rhizobia in root nodules of T. repens is ultimately determined by health of the soil environment. Soil organic matter (SOM) is the main attribute that will sustain soil health as it affects the chemical, physical and biological aspects of soil. The aim of this study was to determine the potential of T. repens and T. ambiguum to sustain low N input pastures. The hypotheses of this study is that SOM can play an important role in ensuring good soil health, which supports the optimum growth and production of Trifolium spp. in low N input pastures. Four Trifolium repens cultivars were evaluated in field conditions to determine the effect of Rhizobium bacteria on the potential of the cultivars to nodulate. The cultivars Grasslands Huia, Haifa, Ladino and Regal were selected for assessment. The thousand-seed-mass (TSM) of each cultivar was measured to determine the quality and viability of the seed; and to determine the interaction between seed mass and nodulation. Mean TSM values of T. repens cultivars differed significantly, with Huia having the highest TSM followed by Haifa, Ladino and Regal. Biomass production was also measured as an indicator of efficiency of nitrogen fixation. The cultivar Huia, with the heaviest seed, showed the highest biomass production. After eight weeks of growth, the nodulation index was determined from the size, number and colour of the bacterially associated root nodules. All plants, regardless of cultivar, formed nodules within eight weeks. It was concluded that TSM had no notable effect on nodulation. Planting date with associated temperature effects and the intrinsic cultivar effect also had no influence on nodulation. It was therefore concluded that nodulation potential of the four cultivars tested was similar in the specific environmental conditions. The total number of symbiotic rhizobial cells per gram of soil as affected by soil C content and the host plant was also determined. Inoculated and un-inoculated seeds were planted on five soil treatments, each with a different level of soil C. The plant infection technique (most-probable-number/MPN technique) was used to quantify the rhizobial numbers in soil as affected by soil C content and the host plant. The mean MPN-value ranged from 8907 to 78 Rhizobium cells per gram of soil for T. repens treatments, and 0 to 436 for T. ambiguum treatment. Soil C had no effect on the number of Rhizobium bacteria present in the soil. Inoculation however, had a significant effect on the MPN value of T. ambiguum, but not for T. repens. Most symbiotic Rhizobium was detected between a soil C content of 2.03% to 3.80% in both inoculated and non-inoculated soils. The spread plate count was used to determine the total number of symbiotic and saprophytic rhizobia. This method was used to quantify both symbiotic and free-living rhizobia. The effect of different levels of soil C on the amount of atmospheric N fixed was assessed by the N difference technique. Arctotheca calendula (cape weed) served as the reference plant in this study, to determine what percentage of N is derived from the atmosphere (%Ndfa). Biomass production was determined and served as the parameter to establish the efficiency of the Rhizobium bacteria in the soil. Inoculating seed with host specific rhizobia had no effect on the amount of N fixed. The mean %Ndfa differed significantly between soil organic C treatments with the species T. repens but did not differ significantly between soil organic C treatments with T. ambiguum. It was concluded from this study that symbiotic rhizobia introduced by inoculant was much more efficient in higher C content soils than free-living rhizobia, which highlights the importance of inoculation in improving the sustainable production of T. repens pastures. Although the amount of N fixed increased as the level of soil organic matter decreased, the efficiency of N fixation decreased proportionally. This explains the bigger change in soil N content on soil with a high C content. This study has thus highlighted the importance of soil organic carbon in the host specific Rhizobium inoculation sucsess, of T. repens low N input pasture systems. / Dissertation (MSc(Agric))--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Os representantes do gênero Arachis são conhecidos como amendoim, e suas sementes possuem grande quantidade de óleos e proteínas, podendo ser consumidas cruas. A espécie mais cultivada do gênero é Arachis hypogaea, que possui grande importância comercial. Outras espécies são também utilizadas para controle das ervas daninhas e cobertura do solo, assim como ornamentais e na alimentação. Arachis repens, popularmente conhecida como grama amendoim, é utilizada como planta ornamental, na formação de pastagens, como forragem e para cobertura do solo em substituição a várias espécies comuns de grama. Diversas substâncias bioativas têm sido identificadas em A. hypogaea. Contudo, estas substâncias ainda não foram descritas em outras espécies do gênero. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o estabelecimento de sistemas de cultivo in vitro para Arachis repens, visando à micropropagação e à análise comparativa da produção de resveratrol em extratos alcoólicos dos materiais produzidos in vitro, em comparação com as plantas in vivo. Segmentos nodais, internodais e foliares foram excisados de plantas in vitro e inoculados em meio MS suplementado com diferentes concentrações de BAP, TDZ, AIA e KIN, utilizados isoladamente ou em combinação. Os explantes apresentaram respostas distintas de acordo com o regulador de crescimento utilizado. Na presença de BAP foi observada a formação de calos compactos, com formação de brotos em diferentes taxas. Na presença de TDZ, segmentos nodais e internodais formaram calos compactos em todas as concentrações. Segmentos nodais cultivados na presença de diferentes concentrações de AIA em combinação com KIN apresentaram a formação de calogênese. Foi também realizada uma avaliação da atividade antioxidante e a presença de fenóis totais em extratos de diferentes materiais in vivo e produzidos in vitro. Nas análises por meio de CLAE, foi possível detectar a presença de resveratrol tanto nos materiais in vivo, quanto os produzidos in vitro. Dessa forma, o trabalho forneceu resultados preliminares sobre as possibilidades de utilização de A. repens para a produção de metabólitos especiais. / Arachis species are known as groundnut and their seeds display high oil and protein contents, being consumed in natura. The most common commercially cultivated species of the genus is Arachis hypogaea. Other Arachis species can also be used as food, ornamental, ground cover and provide weed control. Arachis repens, commonly known as grama amendoim, is used as an ornamental, forage legume and ground cover in substitution of common grass species. Different bioactive substances have been identified in A. hypogaea. However, these substances have not been described in other species of the genus. The goal of this work was the establishment of in vitro culture for Arachis repens, aiming at the micropropagation and the comparative analysis of the resveratrol production in ethanolic extracts of the in vitro produced material, in comparison to in vivo plants. Nodal, internodal and leaf segments were excised from in vitro plants and inoculated on MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of BAP, TDZ, IAA and KIN, used alone or in combination. Explants showed distinct responses in according to the growth regulator used. In the presence of BAP, compact calluses were formed, with the production of shoots in different frequencies. In the presence of TDZ, nodal and internodal segments formed compact calluses in response to all concentrations. Nodal segments cultivated in the presence of different IAA concentrations in combination with KIN showed callogenesis The evaluation of antioxidant activity and the presence of total phenolics in extracts of different in vivo and in vitro materials was also evaluated. The HPLC analysis detected the presence of resveratrol in the materials produced in vivo and in vitro. Therefore, this work provided preliminary results about the possible use of A. repens for the production of special metabolites.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Os representantes do gênero Arachis são conhecidos como amendoim, e suas sementes possuem grande quantidade de óleos e proteínas, podendo ser consumidas cruas. A espécie mais cultivada do gênero é Arachis hypogaea, que possui grande importância comercial. Outras espécies são também utilizadas para controle das ervas daninhas e cobertura do solo, assim como ornamentais e na alimentação. Arachis repens, popularmente conhecida como grama amendoim, é utilizada como planta ornamental, na formação de pastagens, como forragem e para cobertura do solo em substituição a várias espécies comuns de grama. Diversas substâncias bioativas têm sido identificadas em A. hypogaea. Contudo, estas substâncias ainda não foram descritas em outras espécies do gênero. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o estabelecimento de sistemas de cultivo in vitro para Arachis repens, visando à micropropagação e à análise comparativa da produção de resveratrol em extratos alcoólicos dos materiais produzidos in vitro, em comparação com as plantas in vivo. Segmentos nodais, internodais e foliares foram excisados de plantas in vitro e inoculados em meio MS suplementado com diferentes concentrações de BAP, TDZ, AIA e KIN, utilizados isoladamente ou em combinação. Os explantes apresentaram respostas distintas de acordo com o regulador de crescimento utilizado. Na presença de BAP foi observada a formação de calos compactos, com formação de brotos em diferentes taxas. Na presença de TDZ, segmentos nodais e internodais formaram calos compactos em todas as concentrações. Segmentos nodais cultivados na presença de diferentes concentrações de AIA em combinação com KIN apresentaram a formação de calogênese. Foi também realizada uma avaliação da atividade antioxidante e a presença de fenóis totais em extratos de diferentes materiais in vivo e produzidos in vitro. Nas análises por meio de CLAE, foi possível detectar a presença de resveratrol tanto nos materiais in vivo, quanto os produzidos in vitro. Dessa forma, o trabalho forneceu resultados preliminares sobre as possibilidades de utilização de A. repens para a produção de metabólitos especiais. / Arachis species are known as groundnut and their seeds display high oil and protein contents, being consumed in natura. The most common commercially cultivated species of the genus is Arachis hypogaea. Other Arachis species can also be used as food, ornamental, ground cover and provide weed control. Arachis repens, commonly known as grama amendoim, is used as an ornamental, forage legume and ground cover in substitution of common grass species. Different bioactive substances have been identified in A. hypogaea. However, these substances have not been described in other species of the genus. The goal of this work was the establishment of in vitro culture for Arachis repens, aiming at the micropropagation and the comparative analysis of the resveratrol production in ethanolic extracts of the in vitro produced material, in comparison to in vivo plants. Nodal, internodal and leaf segments were excised from in vitro plants and inoculated on MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of BAP, TDZ, IAA and KIN, used alone or in combination. Explants showed distinct responses in according to the growth regulator used. In the presence of BAP, compact calluses were formed, with the production of shoots in different frequencies. In the presence of TDZ, nodal and internodal segments formed compact calluses in response to all concentrations. Nodal segments cultivated in the presence of different IAA concentrations in combination with KIN showed callogenesis The evaluation of antioxidant activity and the presence of total phenolics in extracts of different in vivo and in vitro materials was also evaluated. The HPLC analysis detected the presence of resveratrol in the materials produced in vivo and in vitro. Therefore, this work provided preliminary results about the possible use of A. repens for the production of special metabolites.

Syftet med denna studie var att utveckla en separations- och analysmetod för identifiering av icke-volatila substanser från strån och rötter av de gräsliknande växterna Cyperus rotundus och Panicum repens. För analysen användes högpresterande vätskekromatografi (HPLC) och ultrahögpresterande vätskekromatografi (UHPLC) med en opolär stationär fas (RP-HPLC) med ultraviolett ljus (UV) och elektrosprej masspektrometri detektion (ESI-MS). Proverna extraherandes med hjälp av ultraljuds assisterad extraktion (UAE) och koncentrerades med solid fasextraktion. Två olika metoder användes vid extraktionen antingen sänktes gräset i 10 ml acetonitril två gånger eller så direkt i 20 ml acetonitril. På grund av svårigheten att uppnå reproducerbarhet vid extraktion med samma metod kunde ingen slutsats om någon metods fördelar dras. Under utvecklingen av HPLC metoden testades två olika elueringsmedel metanol och acetonitril i kombination med MilliQ-vatten. Den slutgiltiga metoden börjar med en mobilfas innehållande 70% metanol och 30% vatten under 5 min för att sedan öka till 100% metanol under 10 minuter innan mobilfasen hålls vid 100% metanol under 25 minuter. Med UV-detektorn kräver identifikation av de okända komponenterna krävde kända referenser. Vidare undersökningar genomfördes därför med masspektrometri. Dock så var det begränsad tid kvar för undersökningar med MS så få körningar kunde genomföras, därav kunde inte analyterna analyseras tillräckligt för att kunna identifiera komponenterna från Cyperus rotundus. Vidare analyser med MS samt även kopplad MSMS där spektrum kan jämföras med en databas för identifikation skulle underlätta identifikationen. / The aim of this study is to develop an analysis method for the separation and identification of non-volatile substances from the Cyperus rotundus and- Panicum repens roots and shoots. For the analysis reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) methods where used. First an UV detector was used in combination with the HPLC setup and in the later stages access to an electrospray ionization ion trap mass spectrometer was enabled for coupling to UHPLC. The samples were extracted with ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) and the concentrated with solid phase extraction (SPE). Two different extraction methods were attempted one where the graminoid plants where submerged in 10 ml acetonitrile twice and the other with 20 ml directly. Due to the difficulty of reproducing result between different extraction batches no conclusion on whether either method is superior could be made. For the development of the HPLC method methanol or acetonitrile was used in combination with ultrapure (MilliQ) water. The final eluationprogram was 70% methanol and 30% MilliQ water for five minutes, increasing linearly over 10 minutes to 100% methanol and then running for 25 minutes. With the UV detector no identification was possible, so further investigations were performed with UHPLC-MS for analysis of the mass of the analytes. Due to time limitations only a few MS analyses on the Cyperus rotundus were performed, and only a few masses could be estimated. Further runs of the samples need to be performed in combination with coupled MSMS to be able to identify the analytes in the samples.

Weed infestation of the arable land by persistent weeds is serious problem today. Very dangerous species occuring in all crops, not just only on the arable land, is "Elytrigia repens". It's spread is connected with decrease the level of tillage and with reduction of agrotechnical measures. The target of my thesis is to broadening of knowledges and to suggest other possible solutions of regulation of the occurrence of "Elytrigia repens". SO we did an herbicidal attempt at "Triticum aestivum", which was focused on chemical regulation of this weed. There were used three herbicidal products in different variants. Using of herbicidal products reduces the occurrence of weed species.

Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária / The objective of this work was evaluate two pasture-based systems (PS) with elephantgrass (Pennisetum purpureum Schum.), ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.), and spontaneous growth species varying in one system, the mixture with white clover (Trifolium repens L.) and, in the other system, with forage peanut (Arachis pintoi Kraprov & Gregory), handled under rotational grazing. The experiment was done from April 24th, 2007 to April 30th, 2008, totalizing 371 days. In order to evaluate were used four paddocks with 0.25 ha each one, where the elephantgrass was established in lines with a distance of 4 m between lines. In the winter period, in space between lines, was established the ryegrass and in two paddocks the white clover was sown and, in the other two, the forage peanut was preserved, which had already been established. The experimental design was completely randomized, with two treatments (pasture-based systems), two replicates (paddocks) and in subdivided parcels in the time (grazing cycles). The grazing were fertilized with 100, 60 and 100kg/ha de N, P2O5 and K2O, respectively. As experimental animals were used Holstein cows, in lactation, receiving 6 and 5 kg of complementary concentrate feed in winter and summer periods, respectively. The cows live weight was 514±35.9 kg and mean milk production of 20.80±2.23 kg/day. During the evaluation 11 grazing were done, six in the winter period, defined by ryegrass, and 5 in the summer period where the pre and post grazing were analyzed; the botanical compositions of grazing and structural of elephantgrass, ryegrass and legumes; accumulation rates and of disappearance of forage mass; stocking rate and pasture chemical composition (by samples of grazing simulation). The results show that the appraised botanical composition, in each treatment, contributed to compensate the offer and the forage chemical composition during the year. It was verified a better performance in the pasturebased system, using the forage peanut, considering the mean of the accumulation taxe and of disappearance of forage mass. Pasture-based systems showed similar chemical composition, indicating, the need of improving pasture-based systems to raise the pasture mass production at the start winter period, mainly the legumes contribution. / O trabalho foi conduzido com o objetivo de avaliar dois sistemas forrageiros tendo como componentes comuns o capim-elefante (Pennisetum purpureum Schum.), o azevém (Lolium multiflorum Lam.), e as espécies de crescimento espontâneo variando em um sistema o consórcio com o trevo branco (Trifolium repens L.), e em outro, com o amendoim forrageiro (Arachis pintoi Kraprov. & Gregory), manejados sob pastejo rotacionado. O experimento foi realizado no período de 24 de abril de 2007 a 30 de abril de 2008, totalizando 371 dias. Para a avaliação foram usados quatro piquetes com 0,25 ha cada um, onde o capimelefante encontrava-se estabelecido com espaçamento de 4 m entre linhas. No período hibernal, nas entrelinhas do capim-elefante, fez-se o estabelecimento do azevém e em dois piquetes semeou-se o trevo branco e nos outros dois se preservou o amendoim forrageiro, que já se encontrava estabelecido. O delineamento experimental foi o inteiramente casualizado com dois tratamentos (sistemas forrageiros), duas repetições de área (piquetes) e em parcelas subdivididas no tempo (ciclos de pastejo). As pastagens foram adubadas com 100, 60 e 100 kg/ha de N, P2O5 e K2O, respectivamente. Como animais experimentais foram utilizadas vacas em lactação da raça Holandesa, recebendo complementação alimentar de 6 e 5 kg de concentrado/dia nos períodos estival e hibernal, respectivamente. O peso médio das vacas foi de 514±35,9 kg e produção média de leite de 20,80±2,23 kg/dia. Durante a avaliação foram realizados 11 pastejos, seis no período hibernal, definido pela participação do azevém, e cinco no período estival, avaliando-se a massa de forragem de pré e pós-pastejo; as composições botânica da pastagem e estrutural do capim-elefante, do azevém e das leguminosas; as taxas de acúmulo e de desaparecimento de matéria seca; a carga animal e a composição química do pasto (a partir de amostras de simulação de pastejo). Os resultados demonstram que a composição botânica avaliada em cada tratamento contribuiu para equilibrar, em parte, a oferta e a composição química da forragem no decorrer do ano. Considerando-se os dados médios da massa de forragem, das taxas de acúmulo e de desaparecimento de matéria seca, e a lotação, verificou-se melhor desempenho no sistema forrageiro envolvendo o amendoim forrageiro. Os sistemas forrageiros apresentaram composição química similar, apontando para um sinergismo entre as espécies de gramíneas e leguminosas. No entanto, observa-se a necessidade de se aperfeiçoar os sistemas forrageiros para elevar a produção de massa de forragem no início do período hibernal, especialmente em relação à contribuição das leguminosas.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The objective of this study was to conduct analysis of data from six experiments with forage systems with Elephant Grass (EG) + Italian Ryegrass (IR) + Spontaneous Growing Species (SGS); EG + IR + SGS + Forage Peanut; and EG + IR + SGS + White or Red Clover, conducted in the Laboratório de Bovinocultura de Leite da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, with rotational grazing using dairy cattle. The experiments analyzed were conducted between the years 2005 to 2013 and grouped by the month they grazing cycles were performed. Holstein dairy cows were used for evaluation, with an average body weight and milk production of 543 kg and 19 kg/day, respectively. The total forage production values and the average stocking rate and crude protein levels were 13.8, 16.5 and 16.8 t/ha; 2.90; 2.91 and 2.92 AU/ha/day and 17.5, 18.6 and 18.2%, for the respective forage systems. The forage systems consisting by forage legumes presented the best results in relation to pasture productivity and nutritive value of forage. The mixed with forage peanut controlled the spontaneous growing species and participated in the herbage mass throughout the year. In mixed pasture with clovers the nitrogen contribution to the system resulted in better conditions for the development of grasses forage (Italian ryegrass or elephant grass). / O objetivo desse estudo foi comparar sistemas forrageiros sem leguminosa e em consórcio, por meio de uma análise conjunta de dados provenientes de seis experimentos conduzidos no Laboratório de Bovinocultura de Leite da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria. Os sistemas forrageiros constituíram-se por capim elefante (CE) + azevém (AZ) + espécies de crescimento espontâneo (ECE), sem leguminosa; CE + AZ + ECE + amendoim forrageiro; e CE + AZ + ECE + trevo branco ou vermelho. Os experimentos foram realizados entre os anos de 2005 a 2013 e agrupados pelo mês em que foram efetuados os ciclos de pastejo. Para avaliação foram usadas vacas em lactação da raça Holandesa, com peso corporal e produção de leite média de 543 kg e 19 kg/dia, respectivamente. Os valores de produção de forragem e as médias de taxa de lotação e dos teores de proteína bruta foram de 13,8; 16,5 e 16,8 t/ha; 2,90; 2,91 e 2,92 UA/ha/dia e 17,5; 18,6 e 18,2%, para os respectivos sistemas forrageiros. Os sistemas forrageiros constituídos por leguminosas apresentaram os melhores resultados em relação à produtividade do pasto e ao valor nutritivo da forragem. O consórcio com amendoim forrageiro controlou as espécies de crescimento espontâneo e participou da massa de forragem durante todo o ano. No consórcio com trevos a contribuição de nitrogênio ao sistema implicou em melhores condições para o desenvolvimento das gramíneas acompanhantes (azevém ou capim elefante).

Quackgrass is the most serious perennial grassy weed of wheat in Manitoba. Field experiments and surveys investigating the nature and extent of interference in monocultures and mixtures of quackgrass and wheat were conducted over the years 1987 to 1989 at Portage La Prairie, Manitoba, Canada. Intraspecific and interspecific interference between spring wheat and quackgrass was investigated in the field using an additive series design consisting of five replacement series proportions at total stand densities of 75, 150, and 300 plants sqM. A revised synthetic no-interaction analysis determined that wheat was superior to quackgrass in both intraspecific and interpecific interference and that niche dedifferentiation was large. Quackgrass reproductive variable were less sensitive to interspecific interference than were vegetative variables. Surveys of commercial fields of spring wheat infested with quackgrass were conducted using a dynamic stratified random sampling design in which systematic samples were taken at approximately 30, 60 and 93 days after planting. Wheat yield loss, as a percentage of weed-free yield, (Yw%) was related to spring quackgrass shoot counts/m-2 (Qs) by a rectangular hyperbolic model of the form Yw% = 98.7(1-0.433(Qs)/100(1+(0.433(Qs)/193.7))). Wheat kernel weight was the wheat yield component most influenced by quackgrass infestation. In quackgrass populations the majority of new rhizome production occurred during wheat senescence and biomass partitioning to heads increased as quackgrass infestation increased. Allometric models of the relationship between quackgrass parts were site specific and generally became more accurate the later the sampling date. A set of models relating spring quackgrass infestation to yield losses in hard red spring wheat, flax, and polish canola were combined with allometric models in a multi-year spreadsheet (Lotus 1-2-3, v 3.1) model. Simulations run using the multi-year model demonstrated the potential of a spreadsheet model of assisting in weed control decisions. / October 1995

Quackgrass is the most serious perennial grassy weed of wheat in Manitoba. Field experiments and surveys investigating the nature and extent of interference in monocultures and mixtures of quackgrass and wheat were conducted over the years 1987 to 1989 at Portage La Prairie, Manitoba, Canada. Intraspecific and interspecific interference between spring wheat and quackgrass was investigated in the field using an additive series design consisting of five replacement series proportions at total stand densities of 75, 150, and 300 plants sqM. A revised synthetic no-interaction analysis determined that wheat was superior to quackgrass in both intraspecific and interpecific interference and that niche dedifferentiation was large. Quackgrass reproductive variable were less sensitive to interspecific interference than were vegetative variables. Surveys of commercial fields of spring wheat infested with quackgrass were conducted using a dynamic stratified random sampling design in which systematic samples were taken at approximately 30, 60 and 93 days after planting. Wheat yield loss, as a percentage of weed-free yield, (Yw%) was related to spring quackgrass shoot counts/m-2 (Qs) by a rectangular hyperbolic model of the form Yw% = 98.7(1-0.433(Qs)/100(1+(0.433(Qs)/193.7))). Wheat kernel weight was the wheat yield component most influenced by quackgrass infestation. In quackgrass populations the majority of new rhizome production occurred during wheat senescence and biomass partitioning to heads increased as quackgrass infestation increased. Allometric models of the relationship between quackgrass parts were site specific and generally became more accurate the later the sampling date. A set of models relating spring quackgrass infestation to yield losses in hard red spring wheat, flax, and polish canola were combined with allometric models in a multi-year spreadsheet (Lotus 1-2-3, v 3.1) model. Simulations run using the multi-year model demonstrated the potential of a spreadsheet model of assisting in weed control decisions.