Carcharias taurus is listed as Critically Endangered along the east coast of Australia and there is concern about their status globally. The use of traditional tag–recapture methods to monitor the east coast C. taurus population have been discontinued due to tag–biofouling and injuries that relate to tag attachment. In the current study, captive and wild C. taurus were used to assess whether spots present on their flanks were suitable natural tags for individual shark recognition. Photographic images of seven captive sharks taken at monthly intervals for 13 months and at three years after the start of the study indicated that their spot number, position and relative size did not change over this period. Similarly, eighty–nine wild sharks photographically re–identified at least 23 months after their initial identification (and in one case after 14 years) confirmed long–term spot–pattern retention. Photographic recaptures of individual C. taurus provided information about their temporal and spatial distribution and movement patterns along the Australian east coast in relation to maturity, sex and reproductive condition. A total of 930 sharks were photo–identified between 2004 and 2008 at 23 aggregation sites between Wolf Rock and Montague Island. Of these, 479 were females (271 mature, 208 immature) and 452 were males (288 mature, 60 sub–adults, 104 juveniles). The distribution of pregnant C. taurus was seasonally and temporally distinct from all other sharks. Visibly pregnant C. taurus were recorded at Wolf Rock (the most northern site) from February until October, although many sharks left during July. Pregnant C. taurus were also observed at North Moreton Island, Flat Rock and Fish Rock between June and November. Resting (mature, non–gravid) females and mature males were mostly observed at mid–southern sites from December to June, with northern counts increasing from June to November. The majority of immature sharks were recorded at mid–southern sites. Of 930 sharks identified between 2004 and 2008, 149 were identified at more than one site. On average, mature females moved 338 km (SD ± 465), mature males 340 km (SD ± 299), immature females 147 km (SD ± 98), sub–adult males 185 km (SD ± 216), and juvenile males 271 km (SD ± 237). The maximum rate of movement per day was 18.5 km for a mature female shark, 20.7 km for a mature male, 4.3 km for an immature female, 86 km for a sub–adult male and 4 km for a juvenile male. Mature males and mature non–pregnant females tended to move north from mid–winter and mate in late spring/early summer in warmer waters. From about mid–winter, pregnant females began to move from the warmer waters of their gestation areas to cooler southern waters to pup (probably from late spring to mid–summer). The movement patterns of immature sharks varied temporally, and were more limited spatially. Underwater censuses, photo–identification and acoustic tracking of individual C. taurus were used to investigate their reproductive periodicity, localised movements and behavioural segregation at Wolf Rock – the most northerly aggregation site on the east Australian seaboard. A biennial reproductive cycle was indicated for 18 of 28 females for which re–identifications spanned at least two mating and/or pregnancy events. Nine of the 28 sharks appeared to exhibit a triennial reproductive cycle. Male C. taurus were observed between July and January, but were absent between February and April. Scuba divers reported seeing some mating scars on individuals from mid–October, however fresh mating scars were predominately observed on photographs of individual C. taurus taken in November and December. Four acoustically–tagged mature female sharks remained within 500 m of the Wolf Rock aggregation site within a marine sanctuary zone for 78 – 90 % of the 11–15 day study period. A minimum population estimate of 930 individuals is provided from all sharks identified between 2004 and 2008. In addition, a Jolly–Seber (open model design) mark–recapture analysis on data obtained during four scheduled photo–identification surveys (conducted between July 2006 and February 2008 at 25 aggregation sites along the east coast of Australia) was used to estimate the size of this population. A maximum of 272 sharks (143 females and 129 males) were identified during any scheduled survey period. Model averaging across the highest rated JS models (Popan data formulation) resulted in an estimate of 756 males (95% CI = 590 – 922) and 1185 females (95% CI = 901 – 1469). The mark–recapture abundance estimate is considered preliminary and requires further model development to incorporate the heterogeneity in distribution and migration patterns within the C. taurus population. The occurrence of retained fishing gear and gear–related jaw injuries were quantified from the four scheduled photo–identification surveys along the east coast of Australia. A total of 673 sharks were identified with 119 occurrences of retained fishing gear or jaw injury recorded from 113 individual sharks. For sharks that were known by spot–patterns on both flanks, 29 % of females and 52 % of males were seen with retained fishing gear or a gear–related jaw injury. The largest numbers of identified sharks (222) during the surveys were seen at Fish Rock (off the New South Wales coast): 48 % of all sharks identified with retained fishing gear were first identified at this site. Fish Rock is a designated critical habitat for C. taurus, but most forms of line fishing, except fishing while anchored or moored with bait and/or wire trace line are permitted. Results from the surveys clearly demonstrated that C. taurus is susceptible to a large variety of fishing gear and fishing methods. Current protection measures for C. taurus appear insufficient at this site, particularly as large aggregations that include immature and mature sharks occur consistently throughout the year.

Flowering plants possess striking variation in reproductive traits and mating patterns, even among closely related species. In this thesis, I investigate morphological variation, mating and genetic diversity of five taxa of bird-pollinated Babiana (Iridaceae), including two species with specialized bird perches. Field observations in 12 populations demonstrated that sunbirds were the primary pollinators. Babiana ringens exhibited correlated geographic variation in flower and perch size. Controlled field pollinations revealed self-compatibility and low pollen limitation in B. ringens subspecies, and self-incompatibility and chronic pollen limitation in B. hirsuta. Allozyme markers demonstrated moderate to high selfing rates among populations and considerable variation in levels of genetic diversity. In B. ringens there was a positive relation between the geographic and genetic distance of populations. The results of a manipulative field experiment indicated position-dependent herbivory on inflorescences of B. hirsuta and this could play a role in the evolution of specialized bird perches in Babiana.

Flowering plants possess striking variation in reproductive traits and mating patterns, even among closely related species. In this thesis, I investigate morphological variation, mating and genetic diversity of five taxa of bird-pollinated Babiana (Iridaceae), including two species with specialized bird perches. Field observations in 12 populations demonstrated that sunbirds were the primary pollinators. Babiana ringens exhibited correlated geographic variation in flower and perch size. Controlled field pollinations revealed self-compatibility and low pollen limitation in B. ringens subspecies, and self-incompatibility and chronic pollen limitation in B. hirsuta. Allozyme markers demonstrated moderate to high selfing rates among populations and considerable variation in levels of genetic diversity. In B. ringens there was a positive relation between the geographic and genetic distance of populations. The results of a manipulative field experiment indicated position-dependent herbivory on inflorescences of B. hirsuta and this could play a role in the evolution of specialized bird perches in Babiana.

The mating behaviour and reproductive ecology of the big-handed crab Heterozius rotundifrons was studied at Kaikoura between November 1997 and December 1998. H. rotundifrons was found at mean densities of 7.6 per m² (± 1.4) within the middle and low shore levels and varied little between seasons. The variance! mean ratio indicated that males and females aggregated within these shore levels. The sex ratio was significantly female biased during the majority of the year. Allometric growth rates indicated that males and females reached sexual maturity at 11 mm carapace width (CW). In males, spermatozoa production occurred between 9-9.99 mm CW. Ovigerous females were present every month except February. The first broods of the year were produced in March which coincides with a decrease in the female gonado-somatic index (GSI). These broods were incubated for approximately nine months whereas broods produced in August were incubated for only five months. Female brood production appeared to be cyclical, alternating between a winter incubation period and a summer incubation period. The completed cycle takes approximately three years with two broods produced during the cycle. Fecundity increased with female size but egg mortality was quite high (19%). Instantaneous mortality rate increased with increasing brood development. Females mate when recently moulted (soft-shelled). Although females moulted through out the year, in small numbers, there was a peak in female moulting during October and November. The operational sex ratio (OSR) was male biased during all months of the year. Females released an attractant prior to moulting which initiated pre-copulatory mate guarding by the male. Once the female moulted, copulation occurred approximately 6 h later. Copulation lasted for approximately 3 h and was followed by a period of post-copulatory mate guarding. Males increased the duration of post-copulatory mate guarding if another male was present. Large males out competed small males for receptive females. Males used their large cheliped to subdue competitors and to provide protection for the soft female. Mate guarding was shown to reduce cannibalism from other females. Spermatozoa are packaged in spermatophores within the vas deferens of males but are quickly dehisced within the spermathecae (ventral-type) of newly mated females. Last male to copulate probably achieves the highest level of paternity. Postcopulatory mate guarding by the male was found and ejaculates were found in discrete packets within the spermatheca. Sperm competition appeared to be important because large males displaced small males during copulation, males left when a female was still receptive and the females could retain sperm between moults. It is concluded that H. rotundifrons probably has a polygynous mating system in which males compete for soft females (female centered competition)

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No description available.

xx, 229 p. : ill. (some col.) / Reproductive effort is a central element of human biology and ecology. Particularly for females, reproduction is energetically demanding, with elevated metabolic costs during pregnancy and lactation, followed by high child care costs. To satisfy energetic needs, women can adopt various physiological and behavioral strategies. On a physiological level, the energetic requirements of offspring may be met by adjusting metabolic allocation and/or drawing on maternal bodily reserves. On a behavioral level, women may reduce energy expenditure and/or increase energy intake. This study examined reproductive trade-offs in activity and skeletal health among the indigenous Shuar forager-horticulturalists of Ecuadorian Amazonia and had two main objectives. First, this research examined trade-offs in energy use during female reproductive states and behavioral adjustments made by females and males to meet high reproductive demands. Second, this study investigated skeletal health profiles among Shuar, as well non-Shuar Colonos, to identify the relationships between female reproductive factors and skeletal health. Research was conducted among adults in four Morona-Santiago communities. Skeletal health was measured using calcaneal ultrasonometry, and physical activity was measured using accelerometry. Extensive information on sociodemographics and reproduction was assessed through structured interviews. Age-related declines in bone mineral density (BMD) were observed for Shuar and Colonos, while Shuar BMD was significantly higher than that of other populations. These results suggest that normative data from developed countries may reflect suboptimal bone density levels. Regarding reproductive effects on skeletal health, results indicate that earlier menarcheal age and greater stature are associated with better bone health in postmenopausal life. These conclusions suggest the importance of the timing of early developmental stages in establishing bone status in adulthood. Results demonstrate that physical activity levels were similar between pregnant/lactating (P/L) and other women. However, P/L women appear to compensate for elevated energetic demands by relying on a male partner who has increased his energy expenditure, suggesting greater participation in subsistence activities. Overall, this study demonstrates the importance of biocultural strategies among women to meet high reproductive costs. Further, it emphasizes the utility of a life history framework for identifying trade-offs in physiology and behavior. This dissertation contains previously published and unpublished co-authored material. / Committee in charge: Dr. J. Josh Snodgrass, Chair; Dr. Lawrence S. Sugiyama, Member; Dr. John Lukacs, Member; Dr. John Halliwell, Outside Member

Die Rotbuche (Fagus sylvatica L.) ist die bestimmende Baumart der potentiell natürlichen Vegetation in den Wäldern Mittel- und Westeuropas die ökonomisch bedeutsamste Laubbaumart Deutschlands. Obwohl diese spät-sukzessionelle Baumart über eine hohe physiologische Toleranz gegenüber einem weiten Spektrum klimatischer Wuchsbedingungen verfügt, wird die Buche gegenüber anderen temperaten Laubbaumarten als relativ trockensensitiv eingeschätzt. Da im Zuge des globalen Klimawandels mit einer Verschlechterung der klimatischen Wasserbilanz und mit einer Zunahme sommerlicher Trockenperioden gerechnet wird, wird die zukünftige Rolle der Rotbuche in der europäischen Forstwirtschaft derzeit intensiv diskutiert. Diese Studie hatte zum Ziel, hydrologische und klimatische Einflüsse auf die Produktivität und die Vitalität der Rotbuche zu untersuchen. Hierdurch sollen grundlegende Mechanismen der Trockenstressantwort bei dieser trocken-sensitiven Art identifiziert, und Rückschlüsse auf zukünftige Klimaantworten von Buchenbeständen ermöglicht werden. Zu diesem Zweck wurde die ober- und unterirdische Biomasseproduktion von 12 Buchenaltbeständen im Norddeutschen Tiefland entlang eines natürlichen Niederschlagsgradienten (543-816 mm a-1) auf einheitlichem geologischen Substrat ermittelt. Um den zusätzlichen Einfluss der Wasserspeicherkapazität der Böden zu berücksichtigen, wurden Paare von Buchenbeständen untersucht, die unter nahezu identischen klimatischen Bedingungen, jedoch auf Böden unterschiedlicher Textur (sandige versus lehmig-sandige Böden) stockten. Einflüsse der Wasserverfügbarkeit und klimatischer Variationen auf das Wachstum wurden untersucht unter Berücksichtigung (i) der gesamten ober- und unterirdischen Biomasseproduktion, (ii) der Dynamik von Ressourcen-Allokation und Kohlenstoff-Partitionierung, sowie (iii) der Morphologie wasseraufnehmender und -abgebender Oberflächen. Unerwarteterweise zeigte sich die gesamte Produktivität von Buchen-Altbeständen nur geringfügig von Veränderungen der hydrologischen Regime entlang des Gradienten beeinflusst. Trotz deutlicher Unterschiede in der jährlichen Wasserverfügbarkeit nahmen die oberirdische und die gesamte Biomasseproduktion auf den trockeneren Flächen des Transektes nicht ab. Allerdings führten ausgeprägte früh-sommerliche Wasserdefizite (in den Monaten Juni und Juli) zu deutlichen Einbußen der oberirdischen Biomasseproduktion, und insbesondere der Stammholzproduktion. Entlang des untersuchten Gradienten konnte eine ausgeprägte, kontinuierliche Verschiebung der Allokationsmuster festgestellt werden: Mit abnehmender Wasserverfügbarkeit nahm die Feinwurzelproduktion zu und das Verhältnis von oberirdischer:unterirdischer Biomasseproduktion ab. Anders als oberirdische Komponenten zeigte die Feinwurzelproduktion eine hohe Sensibilität gegenüber Unterschieden hinsichtlich hydrologischer Regime. In Übereinstimmung mit der Optimalitätstheorie der pflanzlichen Ressourcennutzung konnte dieses Allokationsverhalten in sowohl in Reaktion auf veränderte Niederschläge, als auch in Antwort auf auch veränderte Wasserspeicherkapazitäten beobachtet werden. Allokative Anpassungsmechanismen an Wassermangel wurden im Feinwurzelbereich zusätzlich durch morphologische Plastizität (Zunahme im Verhältnis von Oberfläche: Biomasse) und durch Regulierung der räumlichen Verteilung (zunehmende Konzentrierung von Feinwurzeln in der organischen Auflage) komplementiert. Im Gegensatz zu diesen komplexen unterirdischen Trockenheits-Antworten konnten keinerlei Anpassungen der Blattmorphologie an veränderte hydrologische Bedingungen festgestellt werden. Neben Reaktionen auf Wasserverfügbarkeit wurde die Fruchtbildung als zweiter wesentlicher Einfluss auf das Allokationsverhalten der Buche erkannt. Eine deutliche Ressourcen-Allokation zu Gunsten der Fruchtentwicklung beeinträchtigte maßgeblich das oberirdische vegetative Wachstum, insbesondere den Stammholzzuwachs. Auf Grund einer hohen Attraktionsstärke der Früchte gegenüber C und N führte zunehmende Fruktifizierung auch zu einer Gewichts- (und Größen-) Abnahme der Einzelblätter und somit zu reduzierter Bildung von Blattmasse und Bestandesblattfläche (LAI). Neben dieser Abnahme an assimilierender Blattoberfläche führte auch eine deutliche Senkung der Blatt-Stickstoffgehalte in Folge der reproduktiven Ressourcenwidmung mutmaßlich zu einer Verschlechterung der C-Bilanz, sowohl im Mast- als auch im Folgejahr. Eine Analyse klimatischer Einflussfaktoren auf das Mastverhalten legt nahe, dass die Blütenbildung der Buche durch Überschreitung eines Schwellenwertes der Kohlenstoffassimilation im Frühsommer (Juni-Juli) induziert wird. Sofern diese Schlüsse zutreffen, unterliegt das zeitliche Muster der Fruktifikations-Antwort auf Witterungsauslöser einer Rückkopplungskontrolle durch pflanzliche Stickstoff-Dynamik. Vor dem Hintergrund anhaltend erhöhter Stickstoffdepositionen ergäbe sich aus diesem Mechanismus eine zusätzliche Belastung für das zukünftige vegetative Wachstum der Buche. Es ist anzunehmen, dass die in dieser Studie belegte hohe allokative Plastizität in Altbäumen Fagus sylvatica dazu befähigt, ihre hohe Konkurrenzkraft in einem breiten Spektrum hydrologischer Regime zu entfalten. Darüber hinaus werden die hier dargestellten Mechanismen einer langfristigen Trockenheitsanpassung mutmaßlich zu einer gesteigerten Resistenz und Resilienz von Buchen-Altbeständen gegenüber Ereignissen extremer Sommertrockenheit beitragen.

Body size is an important determinant of reproduction in capital breeding animals, including large mammals. However, it is not always practical to hand-measure body size of free-ranging species. In recent years, parallel-laser photogrammetry has been used to obtain remote estimates of body size for some animals, though it remains unknown how well this technique might capture variation in curvilinear body features or if the distance between parallel-laser calipers is altered when projected onto a curved surface. In this thesis, I describe a photogrammetric system that may be useful for obtaining body-size measurements from unrestrained large mammals that permit approach, using domestic horses (Equus ferus caballus) as a model (Chapter 2). I then apply this technique in the field to a wild (feral) population of horses at Sable Island National Park Reserve, Nova Scotia, Canada, where I include body size measurements as variables in a detailed analysis of factors affecting reproduction in females (Chapter 3). Using my parallel-laser photogrammetric system, I show how curvilinear hand-measurements (e.g., across the barrel of a horse) are stongly correlated with their respective linear photogrammetric estimates (R2 ≥ 0.998), and most photogrammetric estimates using my system had high reliability. Using three variables of body size, photogrammetric estimates and hand-measurements explained 86.0% and 96.2%, respectively, of the variation in body weight of a sample of domestic Newfoundland ponies. On Sable Island, Nova Scotia, I examined the relationship of numerous variables (including skeletal body size and body condition) with the probability of yearly reproductive success for female Sable Island horses (years 2008–2012), where I define reproductive success as production of an offspring surviving to one year of age. Age class was a dominant factor predicting reproductive success, as expected from trends previously associated with body size or reproductive experience iii in other populations. Age-class specific energy budgets or social and sexual behaviour caused a more pronounced relationship with body condition at parturition in sub-adults, and body condition at conception and stability of consort relationships were associated with reproductive success in adults. In addition, relationships with local density suggested limited forage around the time of conception and limited water during lactation might also influence reproductive success in adult females. Although relationships were evident for age class, which is correlated with body size, reproductive success was not related to skeletal body size, past reproductive experience, age of primiparity, or band structure. The capital breeding strategy and year-round social associations seen in horses make their reproductive ecology a combination of patterns observed for large ungulates and social primates.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-26T13:30:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 307446 bytes, checksum: 91b73feb2376192f69ab47a6f21c9d48 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-02-17 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Insecticide use is still the main method of arthropod pest management. Due to the social concern about environmental sustainability, new compounds have been used in an attempt to reduce the environmental impact of insecticides mainly regarding the risks to mammals, environmental persistence, pollution and development of insecticide resistance. Within this scenario new compounds and particularly bioinsecticides have been increasingly used. Several studies have been carried out to measure the efficacy of pest control agents and its effects on non-target organisms. However, beyond the investigation of the lethal effects of these compounds, the study of sublethal effects on natural enemies is also necessary and circumscribed to few species. Pirate bug predators (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) play an important role as biological control of many insect pests, some which of great economic importance like the tomato leafminer Tuta absoluta. Blaptostethus pallescens Poppius (Anthocoridae) is a little-known species, but frequently found in tomato fields exposed to insecticides used for pest control, but little is known about those effects in this predator. This study assessed the lethal effects of three insecticides - chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin and azadirachtin - to B. pallescens using their field label rates. Azadirachtin was subsequently selected for assessment of its sublethal effects on behavior and reproduction due to tis lower acute mortality (< 25%) to predator adults after 48 hours of exposure. The insecticides chlorpyrifos and deltamethrin caused 100 % mortality within 4 hours, whereas the survival of insects exposed to azadirachtin was similar to the untreated control. Thus, further studies were conducted with azadirachtin to investigate its sublethal effects. Aiming to evaluate the effects of this insecticide in behavior, adult predators were placed in arenas treated with and without azadirachtin residues for the measurement of parameters such as number of stops, resting time, distance walked and walking velocity. There were no significant differences between treatments. Irritability and repellence to azadirachtin were assessed by the period and the proportion of individuals respectively remaining in the area containing insecticide residue on partially treated arenas. The results indicated that B. pallecens do not exhibit irritability nor repellence to azadirachtin. Subsequently predator couples were subjected to four treatments with azadirachtin untreated couple, treated female (and untreated male), treated male (and untreated female), and treated couple - where female longevity data, daily fecundity, fertility and F1 sex ratio were recorded. These data were used in a projection matrix that generated data of net reproductive rate, population growth rate and generation time for each treatment. The results indicated that there was difference between treatments. Thus, azadirachtin seems to be safer for the predator B. pallescens and therefore a good candidate for the use in pest management programs against T. absoluta. / O uso de inseticidas ainda é a principal forma para o controle de pragas. Em decorrência da preocupação social quanto à sustentabilidade, novos compostos vêm sendo usados na tentativa de reduzir o impacto ambiental de inseticidas, os chamados bioinseticidas. Estudos têm sido feitos para mensurar a eficiência de inseticidas para o controle de pragas e seus efeitos a organismos não-alvo. No entanto, além da investigação dos efeitos letais destes compostos, é necessário o estudo dos efeitos subletais em inimigos naturais, estes estudos vêm aumentando, mas ainda se concentram em poucas espécies. Os percevejos predadores da família Anthocoridae desempenham importante papel no controle biológico de muitas pragas, como a traça-do-tomateiro Tuta absoluta (Meyirick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), de grande importância econômica. Uma espécie pouco conhecida, mas frequentemente encontrada em campos de tomate, é Blaptostethus pallescens Poppius (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) que, portanto vem sendo exposta aos inseticidas usados para o controle da praga, mas pouco se sabe sobre estes efeitos neste predador. Neste trabalho foram avaliados os efeitos letais de três inseticidas - clorpirifós, deltametrina e azadiractina ao B. pallescens usando suas respectivas doses de campo. Posteriormente, azadiractina foi selecionada para avaliação de efeitos subletais no comportamento e na reprodução. Os inseticidas clorpirifós e deltametrina causaram 100% de mortalidade em até 4 horas, enquanto que os insetos expostos a azadiractina tiveram sobrevivência semelhante ao controle. Com o objetivo de avaliar os efeitos deste inseticida no comportamento de locomoção, insetos foram colocados em arenas tratadas com resíduos de azadiractina e controle para a mensuração de parâmetros do caminhamento como número de paradas, tempo parado, distância percorrida e velocidade. Não houve diferença significativa entre os tratamentos. Para avaliação da irritabilidade e repelência foi mensurado o tempo e a proporção de indivíduos, respectivamente, que permaneceram na área contendo resíduos de inseticidas em arenas parcialmente tratadas. Os resultados indicaram que B. pallecens não exibiu irritabilidade e repelência mediante a exposição aos resíduos de azadiractina. Posteriormente casais foram submetidos a 4 tratamentos com azadiractina casal sem tratamento inseticida (i.e., controle), apenas fêmea tratada, apenas o macho tratado e o casal tratado onde foram coletados dados de longevidade das fêmeas, fecundidade diária, fertilidade e a razão sexual da geração F1. Estes resultados foram usados em uma projeção matricial que gerou dados como as taxas líquidas reprodutivas, taxas de incremento populacional e tempo de geração para cada tratamento. Os resultados indicaram um maior feito do inseticida para o casal tratado, seguido por fêmea ou macho tratado e por último o controle. Ainda assim, o inseticida azadiractina se mostrou seguro para o predador B. pallescens e, portanto um candidato para ser usado no controle de T. absoluta permitindo a compatibilização entre uso deste inseticida sem comprometimento da ação predadora sobre esta espécie praga.