Nahrung ist eine der wichtigsten Ressourcen um die Tiere konkurrieren. Um die Anpassung von lebenden Organismen zu verstehen ist es daher von großem Interesse festzustellen, wie Individuen um solche limitierenden Ressourcen konkurrieren. Bei Säugetieren wird erwartet, dass Weibchen intensiver um Nahrungsressourcen konkurrieren als Männchen, da Weibchen im Allgemeinen geringere Fortpflanzungsraten haben, und ihre Fertilität und Fortpflanzung stärker durch ihren Ernährungszustand beeinflusst werden. Zusätzlich zu dem Einfluss von Nahrungsressourcen auf das Überleben und die Reproduktion von Individuen, schlagen sozio-ökologische Modelle vor, dass die Eigenschaften von Nahrungsressourcen die Nahrungskonkurrenz und sozialen Interaktionen zwischen Individuen und Gruppen beeinflussen, und so zu voraussagbaren Unterschieden in der Sozialstruktur von Weibchen führen. Die Validität dieser Modelle wird momentan diskutiert, da Modellvorhersagen und empirische Daten häufig voneinander abweichen. Es wird allerdings argumentiert, dass diese Unstimmigkeiten hauptsächlich daraus resultieren, dass Modellvorhersagen nur ungenau oder unvollständig überprüft und wichtige Faktoren, wie zum Beispiel konkurrenzreduzierende Mechanismen und Konkurrenz um andere limitierende Ressourcen, ausgelassen werden. Das Ziel dieser Doktorarbeit war, unser Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Nahrungseigenschaften, proximaten Mechanismen der Nahrungskonkurrenz und weiblicher Fitness zu erweitern, indem Aggression, Energieaufnahme und Reproduktion innerhalb einer Gruppe wilder Assam-Makaken (Macaca assamensis) mit Nahrungseigenschaften in Verbindung gebracht wurde. Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, habe ich mehrere Faktoren berücksichtigt, von denen behauptet wurde, dass sie die Vorhersagekraft von sozio-ökologischen Modellen verbessern könnten. Dazu gehören Energieaufnahme und Fitness, sowie Nahrungskonkurrenz innerhalb einzelner Nahrungsquellen (food patches), konkurrenzreduzierende Mechanismen und Konkurrenz um Sicherheit. Ich habe die ultimaten Folgen der Nahrungskonkurrenz erforscht, in dem ich den Einfluss von Nahrungsverfügbarkeit auf die Energieaufnahme von Weibchen, sowie den Einfluss deren Ranges auf die Energieaufnahme, Aktivität und Reproduktion untersucht habe. Um einen Einblick in die proximaten Mechanismen der Nahrungskonkurrenz zu gewinnen, habe ich dann die Nahrungskonkurrenz innerhalb einzelner Nahrungsquellen untersucht, um den Einfluss von sozialen und ökologischen Faktoren auf die nahrungsbezogene Aggressionsrate zu erforschen. Zusätzlich habe ich Strategien untersucht, die Weibchen nutzen könnten um direkte Konflikte um Nahrung zu vermeiden. Des Weiteren habe ich untersucht, inwiefern die räumliche Verteilung von Individuen von der Gruppenaktivität und ökologischen Bedingungen abhängt, um zu beurteilen wie die Gruppe ihre Kohäsion anpassen könnte, um das beste mögliche Verhältnis zwischen Kosten und Nutzen des Lebens in einer Gruppe zu erreichen. Schlussendlich habe ich erforscht, wie Dominanzrang und Reproduktionszustand den Abstand eines Weibchen zum Mittelpunkt der Gruppe beeinflusst. Für diese Studie wurden Daten über eine Gruppe wilder Assam-Makaken im Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary im Nordosten Thailands über zwei einjährige Beobachtungszeiträume erhoben (Zeitraum 1: Oktober 2007 bis September 2008; Zeitraum 2: Mai 2010 bis April 2011). Die Gruppe bestand aus insgesamt 53 Individuen, davon 12 adulte Weibchen (Zeitraum 1), bzw. aus insgesamt 49 Individuen, davon 15 adulte Weibchen (Zeitraum 2). Es wurden Fokusbeobachtungen von allen adulten Weibchen durchgeführt, und so insgesamt über 2100 Stunden Beobachtungen von Fressverhalten, Energieaufnahme, und Aktivitätsbudget erhoben, die durch Daten über Nahrungseigenschaften, weibliche Fortpflanzung, physische Verfassung und räumliche Positionen ergänzt wurden. Zusätzlich habe ich 355 Fokusbaumbeobachtungen durchgeführt, die simultane Beobachtungen aller Individuen beim Fressen in einem patch erlaubten und detaillierte Informationen über Ressourceneigenschaften, Aggressionen und die Gruppenzusammensetzung beim Fressen lieferten. Meine Studie zeigte, dass die Studienpopulation sich hauptsächlich frugivor ernährt und dass die Verfügbarkeit von Früchten sowohl die Energieaufnahme als auch die Empfängnisraten der Weibchen beeinflusst. Dies lässt darauf schließen, dass Nahrung tatsächlich eine limitierende Ressource ist. Der Einfluss des Ernährungszustandes auf die weibliche Fitness war besonders offensichtlich während der Stillperiode, welche als energieaufwändigster Teil des Reproduktionszyklus weiblicher Säugetiere betrachtet wird. Während dieses Zeitraums haben weibliche Assam-Makaken eine energiesparende Strategie verfolgt, und verlängerte Ruhezeiten gegen verkürzte Zeiten der Nahrungsaufnahme abgewogen. Der Grad, zu dem Weibchen in der Lage waren die Kosten der Laktation zu kompensieren, beeinflusste, ob sie in ausreichend guter physischer Verfassung blieben, um in der folgenden Paarungszeit erneut tragend zu werden. Dies weißt darauf hin, dass die Nahrungsverfügbarkeit während energetisch anspruchsvoller Perioden, wie z.B. der Hauptstillzeit, die weibliche Reproduktion beschränken kann. Trotz ihrer hauptsächlich frugivoren Ernährung und dem Fakt, dass Weibchen eine strikt lineare Dominanzhierarchie aufweisen, zeigen Weibchen überraschenderweise keine Rangabhängigkeit in der Energieaufnahme, des Aktivitätsbudgets oder der Reproduktion. Außerdem veränderte sich der Einfluss des Ranges eines Weibchen weder auf ihre Energieaufnahme noch auf ihre Aktivität, abhängig von der Gesamtverfügbarkeit von Früchten, Nahrungsqualität, Größe einer Nahrungsressource oder Dichte des meist verzehrten Nahrungstyps. Die Frequenz von nahrungsbezogener Aggression in Nahrungspatches erhöhte sich mit zunehmender Gruppengröße beim Fressen und abnehmender Anzahl von Futterstellen innerhalb des patches (patch size), während sie nicht durch ökologische Variablen, die den Wert von Ressourcen messen, beeinflusst wurde. Interessanterweise scheinen Weibchen mehrere Mechanismen zu nutzen, die direkte Konflikte vermeiden. Dazu gehören die Nutzung alternativer Futterstellen innerhalb von Nahrungspatches, das Speichern von Nahrung in Backentaschen und das Fressen in der Nähe von Individuen mit enger sozialer Bindung. Distanzen zwischen Individuen waren größer wenn die Gruppe fraß als wenn sie hauptsächlich ruhte, sozial interagierte oder sich bewegte. Dies beruht wahrscheinlich darauf, dass die Kosten auf Grund der Nahrungskonkurrenz mit der Nähe zunehmen. Unter den adulten Weibchen besetzten höherrangige Individuen zentralere Positionen innerhalb der Gruppe, während niederrangige Weibchen eher außen zu finden waren. Zusammenfassend vereint diese Doktorarbeit Erkenntnisse über die Zusammenhänge zwischen Ressourceneigenschaften, Verhaltensmechanismen der Nahrungskonkurrenz und Fitnesskonsequenzen in weiblichen Assam-Makaken, und gibt somit einen detaillierten Einblick in die sozialen und ökologischen Einflüsse auf Nahrungskonkurrenz und Fitness von Weibchen. Basierend auf Ressourceneigenschaften wurde vorhergesagt, dass Weibchen innerhalb der Gruppe direkte Nahrungskonkurrenz (contest competition) zeigen. Obwohl Weibchen Aggression im Zusammenhang mit Nahrung zeigen, waren die Aggressionsraten niedriger als vorhergesagt. Dies war wahrscheinlich bedingt durch den Fakt, dass Weibchen konfliktreduzierende Mechanismen nutzen, und dadurch, dass Aggressionsraten stärker durch die Größe eines Nahrungsquelles (patch size) und der Gruppengröße beim Fressen beeinflusst wurden, als durch die Dichte, die Qualität und die Verteilung der Nahrung. Weibchen haben keine Rangabhängigkeit in Hinsicht auf Energieaufnahme und Fitness gezeigt, die mit direkter Nahrungskonkurrenz innerhalb der Gruppe in Verbindung gebracht wird. Hier sind erneut die konkurrenzreduzierenden Mechanismen wichtig, da sie es niedrigrangigen Weibchen erlauben ihren Zugang zu Nahrungsressourcen zu verbessern. Dies könnte mit anderen Nachteilen verbunden sein. Niedrigrangige Weibchen besetzten zum Beispiel eher äußere Positionen, die voraussichtlich Störungen bei der Nahrungsaufnahme reduzieren, welche aber auch mit erhöhtem Prädationsrisiko verbunden sind. Dies deutet an, dass die Konkurrenz um sichere Positionen mit der Nahrungskonkurrenz interagiert und die individuelle Fitness beeinflussen kann. Um die interne Widerspruchsfreiheit von sozio-ökologischen Modellen grundlegend zu überprüfen, sind weitere Studien notwendig die detaillierte Messungen von Ressourceneigenschaften, Energieaufname und Fitness miteinbeziehen, und die konkurrenzvermeidenden Anpassungen und Konkurrenz um sonstige limitierende Ressourcen berücksichtigen.

The sustainability of municipal drinking water services in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria requires that its water utilities enhance their resilience to a range of risks posed by extreme weather events. Excellence in managing such risks is essential, not only to the bottom line and reputation of the utilities, but also to the wellbeing and prosperity of the people they serve and the preservation of nature in order to sustain ecosystem services. In the context of this study, organisational resilience has been defined as the adaptive deployment of the utility s assets and structures within its continua of inter-dependences to improve and sustain performance even in the face of repeated perturbations. On the other hand, vulnerability is defined as the utility s inability to withstand adverse stress based on limited or constrained capacity to adapt hence creating pathways through which risk impacts the utility. This definition of vulnerability is in tandem with those that argue that the key parameters of vulnerability are the stress to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity. In view of this, and also based on the findings of the study, the study notes that utility management could be a complex and challenging task, especially, in a multi-risk delta environment where extreme events are intense and frequent. Utility managers can become veterans of risks by dissipating, more than ever before technical competence, watershed/ecosystem awareness, social engagement skills and conceptual ability. The latter includes an understanding of how the complexities of the upstream and downstream environment impacts on the utility s internal environment and operations. The diffusive nature of risk makes every risk a potential high impact risk and the understanding of this, is the key to a resilient organization. Risk analysis and management in water utilities should aim to limit the diffusion of risks across streams in order to retard vulnerability. Utility resilience options will need to vary depending on climate related risks to each system, utility management goals, legislation, local and national water management strategies and finance. Utilities in the Niger delta needs to fully understand that they operate close to the edge by virtue of being below sea level and should cultivate a keen awareness of the consequences of flooding and saltwater intrusion, and the importance to manage them amongst others. The study has shown that there is need now, more than ever before for increased revenue generation, elimination of wastes/inefficiencies, financial investment and strategic management of water services operations in the study area if residents and the unborn generation are to be guaranteed of safe and adequate drinking water.

This thesis utilizes a theoretical framework which links biophysical and social domains of ecosystems via ecosystem services (ES), in order to conduct a socio-ecological assessment of urban watersheds in three communities in Chilean and Argentine regions of southern Patagonia. Results from this study show that expanding urban areas may be undermining the ability of local watersheds to provide for high quality ES posing potential risks to community wellbeing. Secondly, researchers and decision makers influencing regional natural resource management share similar values to general community members but do not capture the diversity of values that exist within the broader community, and dialogue between these groups on management issues is poor. A community-based management structure is recommended for the creation of adaptive and locally relevant management strategies.

Community participation takes place when community members act together as subjects. It is argued here that community participation empowers when community members take decisions, or negotiate an equitable share in making the decisions that affect them. However, since participation takes place within a network of power relations it is not necessarily empowering but can take a range of forms from enforcement to empowerment, whereby empowerment may involve not only willing cooperation, but also resistance to outsider project objectives. This thesis explores these issues through a study of how people in three Philippine upland communities participated in soil conservation and livelihood restoration projects initiated by three different NGOs. The principal aim of the study was to identify and examine the changing discourses of development and participation held by the NGOs and by the members of the subject communities. The development discourses revolved around socio-ecology, described as the relationship between the culture and society of Filipino subsistence smallholders and the ecological units of their local environment. The failure of this existing socio-ecology under the pressure of increasing population density on a limited upland resource base was the stimulus for change in the study communities. The thesis compares the NGOs’ practice of engaging with the communities with their discourses of participation, and examines the importance of the relationships between the NGOs, government agencies and the communities for the success of the projects. The study identified several key factors in the empowerment of subject groups. Firstly, the need for a discourse that enables them to embark on socio-ecological change. For the Filipino communities examined here, the discourse of sustainability was validated by enabling the restoration of their livelihoods. Secondly, outside agencies, either NGO or government, may be needed to catalyse community change processes. Thirdly, the subjects need leaders who have the vision and skills to work for the desired livelihood and social development outcomes. Training activities of livelihood restoration proved highly significant in expanding women’s political space that led to opportunities for them to take up leadership, as well as giving capacity-building training for existing and future leaders which helped to equalize gender relations between men and women. Fourthly, the policy and program initiatives of host government agencies can synergize with community and partner agency activities at several levels, including resourcing and building the capacities of leadership.

Urbanization, as it transforms natural biotic systems into human-dominated landscapes, is recognized as one of the greatest threats to biodiversity throughout the world. Furthermore, urban dwellers are becoming increasingly disconnected with the natural world. Here I investigate whether residential landscape designs that mimic the natural environment can provide habitat for native birds. First I uncover some of the patterns of bird distribution in residential yards by incorporating habitat features, urbanization measurements and socioeconomic factors with bird monitoring data into a multivariate analysis. The results indicate that native birds associate with neighborhoods with native plants and shrubs, neighborhoods closer to desert tracts, and higher income neighborhoods. Very few bird species associate with low income and predominantly Hispanic neighborhoods. Additional analyses based on social survey data demonstrate that residents notice the varying levels of bird variety in their neighborhood. Second, I address whether perceived habitat quality differs between residential landscape designs by testing foraging decisions at artificial food patches. Birds foraging in yards landscaped with native plants consume fewer resources than birds foraging in exotic landscaped yards. This suggests that alternative food sources are more available in the native landscaped yards, indicating better quality habitat. Third, I investigate the relationship between native bird diversity and neighborhoods with a Homeowner Association (HOA). Neighborhoods with an HOA have higher native bird diversity, perhaps due to an active and enforceable landscape maintenance plan. I suggest an HOA adapt features from the Sustainable Sites Initiative to further improve habitat conditions for native birds and other wildlife. Results from the Dissertation support the implementation of native landscaping in residential yards to help reverse the loss of urban biodiversity. Consequentially, these landscapes will provide positive opportunities for urban dwellers to reconnect with the natural world.

Many children in conflict with the law are not receiving the relevant education and services to which they are entitled. Convention on the Rights of the Child, proclaim that the convicted child‟s needs of persons of their age, like the right to appropriate education must be addressed as a matter of urgency. In addition, there is a serious lack of properly trained personnel who might be causing more impairment to children in conflict with the law, but who remain in the system. The appointment of relevant and appropriate staff in correctional facilities is definitely required. For instance, many young offenders lacked a decent education, social skills and occupational skills and involvement of parents, peers and the community. If essential programmes become successful, this will not only improve the livelihood of children in conflict with the law, but will also reduce recidivism rates. Qualified teachers and caregivers are required because the children in conflict with the law require specialised programmes like Individual Education Plan (IEP). The IEP is a basic aspect in providing quality special education services to help a particular learner attain his or her maximum learning potential. The aim of this study was to develop socio-ecological framework in understanding and giving support to children in conflict with the law. Bronfenbrenner‟s ecological model was used as a conceptual framework. Qualitative research design and phenomenology as a mode of enquiry were employed in this study. Interpretivism was used a philosophical paradigm. Population was learners, between ages of eleven and seventeen, from three correctional facilities. Purposive sampling was used as a method of sample selection. The findings in this study indicated that the children in conflict with the law resented the teachers showing signs of being judgemental, for failing to acknowledge their efforts and for being unresponsive to their needs. Initial desires to succeed in the classroom were replaced by frustration, anger, hopelessness and disappointment following failure. Many of their acting out behaviours were an expression of this anger and disappointment. / Inclusive Education / D. Ed. (Inclusive Education)

Body size is an important determinant of reproduction in capital breeding animals, including large mammals. However, it is not always practical to hand-measure body size of free-ranging species. In recent years, parallel-laser photogrammetry has been used to obtain remote estimates of body size for some animals, though it remains unknown how well this technique might capture variation in curvilinear body features or if the distance between parallel-laser calipers is altered when projected onto a curved surface. In this thesis, I describe a photogrammetric system that may be useful for obtaining body-size measurements from unrestrained large mammals that permit approach, using domestic horses (Equus ferus caballus) as a model (Chapter 2). I then apply this technique in the field to a wild (feral) population of horses at Sable Island National Park Reserve, Nova Scotia, Canada, where I include body size measurements as variables in a detailed analysis of factors affecting reproduction in females (Chapter 3). Using my parallel-laser photogrammetric system, I show how curvilinear hand-measurements (e.g., across the barrel of a horse) are stongly correlated with their respective linear photogrammetric estimates (R2 ≥ 0.998), and most photogrammetric estimates using my system had high reliability. Using three variables of body size, photogrammetric estimates and hand-measurements explained 86.0% and 96.2%, respectively, of the variation in body weight of a sample of domestic Newfoundland ponies. On Sable Island, Nova Scotia, I examined the relationship of numerous variables (including skeletal body size and body condition) with the probability of yearly reproductive success for female Sable Island horses (years 2008–2012), where I define reproductive success as production of an offspring surviving to one year of age. Age class was a dominant factor predicting reproductive success, as expected from trends previously associated with body size or reproductive experience iii in other populations. Age-class specific energy budgets or social and sexual behaviour caused a more pronounced relationship with body condition at parturition in sub-adults, and body condition at conception and stability of consort relationships were associated with reproductive success in adults. In addition, relationships with local density suggested limited forage around the time of conception and limited water during lactation might also influence reproductive success in adult females. Although relationships were evident for age class, which is correlated with body size, reproductive success was not related to skeletal body size, past reproductive experience, age of primiparity, or band structure. The capital breeding strategy and year-round social associations seen in horses make their reproductive ecology a combination of patterns observed for large ungulates and social primates.

Many children in conflict with the law are not receiving the relevant education and services to which they are entitled. Convention on the Rights of the Child, proclaim that the convicted child‟s needs of persons of their age, like the right to appropriate education must be addressed as a matter of urgency. In addition, there is a serious lack of properly trained personnel who might be causing more impairment to children in conflict with the law, but who remain in the system. The appointment of relevant and appropriate staff in correctional facilities is definitely required. For instance, many young offenders lacked a decent education, social skills and occupational skills and involvement of parents, peers and the community. If essential programmes become successful, this will not only improve the livelihood of children in conflict with the law, but will also reduce recidivism rates. Qualified teachers and caregivers are required because the children in conflict with the law require specialised programmes like Individual Education Plan (IEP). The IEP is a basic aspect in providing quality special education services to help a particular learner attain his or her maximum learning potential. The aim of this study was to develop socio-ecological framework in understanding and giving support to children in conflict with the law. Bronfenbrenner‟s ecological model was used as a conceptual framework. Qualitative research design and phenomenology as a mode of enquiry were employed in this study. Interpretivism was used a philosophical paradigm. Population was learners, between ages of eleven and seventeen, from three correctional facilities. Purposive sampling was used as a method of sample selection. The findings in this study indicated that the children in conflict with the law resented the teachers showing signs of being judgemental, for failing to acknowledge their efforts and for being unresponsive to their needs. Initial desires to succeed in the classroom were replaced by frustration, anger, hopelessness and disappointment following failure. Many of their acting out behaviours were an expression of this anger and disappointment. / Inclusive Education / D. Ed. (Inclusive Education)

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-14T13:24:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 3348525 bytes, checksum: 5fda23587eaded25d9a89e60948bf7b0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-08-26 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / This dissertation deals with the contemporary intricacies infers the processing and handling of ecological harvesting of Pickers Seafood by the cities of Bayeux, and João Pessoa and Cabedelo in Paraiba depending on the environment where shellfish grow. This study was undertaken to analyze the relationship of socio-ecological process and organization of work that occur in the pick up process and marketing of shellfish seafood by the riverside communities of the estuary of River Paraíba. Among the qualitative methods include: life history, free interviews, semi-structured, guided tours and direct observation, the data were analyzed by interpreting the speech of the interviewees, based on the model of the integration of the various individual skills. The knowledge that these women have about the distribution of resources and its ecology, and environmental perception, constitutes a valuable tool in that it is enough to be incorporated in both plans of socio-economic studies and in management, conservation and sustainable use of local fauna. / Esta dissertação trata das imbricações contemporâneas no que infere o processamento e manuseio ecológico da coleta de mariscos pelas marisqueiras dos municípios de Bayeux, João Pessoa e Cabedelo no Estado da Paraíba que dependem do ambiente onde os moluscos bivalves se desenvolvem. Teve-se como objetivo analisar as relações sócio ecológicas do processo e organização do trabalho que ocorrem no processo de cata e comercialização dos moluscos pelas marisqueiras das comunidades ribeirinhas do estuário do Rio Paraíba. Dentre os métodos qualitativos, destacam-se: história de vida, entrevistas livres, semi-estruturadas, turnês guiadas e observação direta; os dados obtidos foram analisados por meio da interpretação do discurso das entrevistadas, com base no modelo de união das diversas competências individuais. O conhecimento que estas mulheres detêm sobre a distribuição dos recursos e sua ecologia, além de sua percepção ambiental, constitui-se em uma ferramenta valiosa que é suficiente para ser incorporada tanto em planos de desenvolvimento sócio-econômicos quanto em estudos de manejo, conservação e utilização sustentável da fauna local.