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Cities and their characteristics of energy use play an important role in climate change. While there is abundant research about the impact of energy use on transportation the impact of urban form and housing characteristics on residential energy use has not been considered widely. There is certainly a need to take a closer look about the residential energy use and housing relationships to identify planning implications. This study examines the relationship between various urban form, housing characteristics and the energy use that result from residential electricity and fuel use. Ordinary least squares regression methods are used to measure the correlations between energy consumption and variables describing housing and urban form characteristics in the metropolitan statistical areas in the United States. After controlling for differences in energy price and income, a positive relationship between residential energy consumption and a history of greater rates of land conversion was found. This study also finds significantly higher energy use associated with a greater incidence of detached single-family housing when compared against high-rise buildings. A correlation between increased rate of row housing and lower energy use was found as well. This study can contribute to a literature that can help planners to create more environmentally- friendly cities by contributing to the understanding of the impacts that certain energy- related housing characteristics have on the sustainability of a city. The literature regarding smart growth and new urbanism should explore potential impacts on household energy consumption in its discussion of urban planning along with considering impacts on transportation related energy use.

Researchers are in broad agreement that energy-conserving actions produce economic as well as energy savings. Household energy rating systems (HERS) have been established in many countries to inform households of their house’s current energy performance and to help reduce their energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. In Canada, the national EnerGuide for Houses (EGH) program is delivered by many local delivery agents, including non-profit green community organizations. Waterloo Region Green Solutions is the local non-profit that offers the EGH residential energy evaluation service to local households. The purpose of this thesis is to explore the determinants of household’s participation in the residential energy efficiency program (REEP) in Waterloo Region, to explain the relationship between the explanatory variables and REEP participation, and to propose ways to improve this kind of program. A spatial (trend) analysis was conducted within a geographic information system (GIS) to determine the spatial patterns of the REEP participation in Waterloo Region from 1999 to 2006. The impact of sources of information on participation and relationships between participation rates and explanatory variables were identified. GIS proved successful in presenting a visual interpretation of spatial patterns of the REEP participation. In general, the participating households tend to be clustered in urban areas and scattered in rural areas. Different sources of information played significant roles in reaching participants in different years. Moreover, there was a relationship between each explanatory variable and the REEP participation rates. Statistical analysis was applied to obtain a quantitative assessment of relationships between hypothesized explanatory variables and participation in the REEP. The Poisson regression model was used to determine the relationship between hypothesized explanatory variables and REEP participation at the CDA level. The results show that all of the independent variables have a statistically significant positive relationship with REEP participation. These variables include level of education, average household income, employment rate, home ownership, population aged 65 and over, age of home, and number of eligible dwellings. The logistic regression model was used to assess the ability of the hypothesized explanatory variables to predict whether or not households would participate in a second follow-up evaluation after completing upgrades to their home. The results show all the explanatory variables have significant relationships with the dependent variable. The increased rating score, average household income, aged population, and age of home are positively related to the dependent variable. While the dwelling size and education has negative relationships with the dependent variable. In general, the contribution of this work provides a practical understanding of how the energy efficiency program operates, and insight into the type of variables that may be successful in bringing about changes in performance in the energy efficiency project in Waterloo Region. Secondly, with the completion of this research, future residential energy efficiency programs can use the information from this research and emulate or expand upon the efforts and lessons learned from the Residential Energy Efficiency Project in Waterloo Region case study. Thirdly, this research also contributes to practical experience on how to integrate different datasets using GIS.

Researchers are in broad agreement that energy-conserving actions produce economic as well as energy savings. Household energy rating systems (HERS) have been established in many countries to inform households of their house’s current energy performance and to help reduce their energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. In Canada, the national EnerGuide for Houses (EGH) program is delivered by many local delivery agents, including non-profit green community organizations. Waterloo Region Green Solutions is the local non-profit that offers the EGH residential energy evaluation service to local households. The purpose of this thesis is to explore the determinants of household’s participation in the residential energy efficiency program (REEP) in Waterloo Region, to explain the relationship between the explanatory variables and REEP participation, and to propose ways to improve this kind of program. A spatial (trend) analysis was conducted within a geographic information system (GIS) to determine the spatial patterns of the REEP participation in Waterloo Region from 1999 to 2006. The impact of sources of information on participation and relationships between participation rates and explanatory variables were identified. GIS proved successful in presenting a visual interpretation of spatial patterns of the REEP participation. In general, the participating households tend to be clustered in urban areas and scattered in rural areas. Different sources of information played significant roles in reaching participants in different years. Moreover, there was a relationship between each explanatory variable and the REEP participation rates. Statistical analysis was applied to obtain a quantitative assessment of relationships between hypothesized explanatory variables and participation in the REEP. The Poisson regression model was used to determine the relationship between hypothesized explanatory variables and REEP participation at the CDA level. The results show that all of the independent variables have a statistically significant positive relationship with REEP participation. These variables include level of education, average household income, employment rate, home ownership, population aged 65 and over, age of home, and number of eligible dwellings. The logistic regression model was used to assess the ability of the hypothesized explanatory variables to predict whether or not households would participate in a second follow-up evaluation after completing upgrades to their home. The results show all the explanatory variables have significant relationships with the dependent variable. The increased rating score, average household income, aged population, and age of home are positively related to the dependent variable. While the dwelling size and education has negative relationships with the dependent variable. In general, the contribution of this work provides a practical understanding of how the energy efficiency program operates, and insight into the type of variables that may be successful in bringing about changes in performance in the energy efficiency project in Waterloo Region. Secondly, with the completion of this research, future residential energy efficiency programs can use the information from this research and emulate or expand upon the efforts and lessons learned from the Residential Energy Efficiency Project in Waterloo Region case study. Thirdly, this research also contributes to practical experience on how to integrate different datasets using GIS.

This dissertation addresses the issues of climate change and depletion of non-renewable resources of energy and water, and aims at eliminating the use of non-renewable resources of energy and water for the building operation in single-family detached residences in the U.S. With this aim, this study investigated the feasibility of the off-grid, off-pipe design approach in six climate locations across the U.S. to achieve self-sufficiency in a house for building energy, indoor water use, and household wastewater and sewage disposal using only on-site available renewable resources. For the analysis, a 2,500 ft2, 2000/2001 International Energy Conservation Code standard reference house with typical building and usage characteristics was selected as the base case. The six U.S. climate locations included: Minneapolis, MN, Boulder, CO, Atlanta, GA, Houston, TX, Phoenix, AZ, and Los Angeles, CA. The renewable resources considered for this study included: solar radiation, wind, biomass for building energy needs; rainwater for indoor water use. In addition, the building site was considered for the disposal of household wastewater and sewage. The selected climate locations provided different scenarios in terms of base-case building energy needs and availability of renewable resources. Depending on these, energy and water efficiency measures were selected for reducing the building needs. For the reduced building needs, the sizing of systems for self-sufficiency was performed, including: solar thermal system for building’s space heating and water heating needs, photovoltaic and wind power systems for building’s electricity needs; rainwater harvesting system for indoor water needs; and septic system for the on-site disposal of household wastewater and sewage. In this manner, an integrated analysis procedure was developed for the analysis and design of off-grid, off-pipe homes, and was demonstrated for six U.S. climate locations. The results of the analysis indicated that achieving self-sufficiency for energy, water and sewage disposal was possible is all climates provided the systems for the collection and storage of renewable resources were large. On the other hand, the utilization of these systems was small for locations, where the year-to-year and seasonal variations in the weather conditions and availability of climate resources was large. For increased system utilization, minimization of the peak building needs, utilization of harvested energy for secondary purposes, and considering alternative systems for such applications are preferred.

This thesis examines an effort to increase energy conservation in low-income housing communities through an educational program. The Saving Green Program offered at Foundation Communities in Austin, Texas attempts to educate residents about their energy usage and ways to reduce it. Activities include a class, an in-home energy visit, and energy feedback reports. We take several approaches in analyzing the program’s impact. First, we conduct a descriptive characterization of participants with regards to income, household makeup, and electricity usage. We then interviewed program participants in order to assess impact and participant reaction. Finally, we conduct two quantitative analyses to measure effectiveness. These include a comparison between groups of participants and non-participants, and a comparison of participants’ electricity usage after the program against their own usage before the program. Our descriptive assessment shows that most in our sample are either single seniors or households with multiple children. Their electricity usage varies however nearly half of load usually goes to cooling and their usage appears to be uncorrelated with income. Load patterns are dictated more by apartment size than anything else. Interviews show that participants readily absorbed and disseminated information regarding plug loads, but had poor understanding of the importance of cooling load. Finally, our quantitative analysis shows, in accordance with the interviews, that participants did not exhibit any systematic change in electricity consumption in summer, however there is some evidence that winter load decreased after the program. / text

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Energy efficiency, as the effective use of energy, is recognized as one of the simplest ways to improve the sustainable use of resources and by implication involves the end-user. The 2008 power crisis which South Africa experienced, highlighted supply exigencies and prompted a subsequent emphasis on affordable, rapidly scalable solutions, notably energy efficiency. As the establishment of new supply capacity is both costly and time-consuming, the logical alternative has been to focus intervention on the demand side. Residential electrical end-use has been identified as an area where the potential for change exists and strategies to address residential demand have gained momentum. The vulnerability of energy systems affects energy security on technical, economic and social levels. South African consumers are confronted with rising living costs and a substantial increase in electricity prices according to the Integrated Resource Plan for Electricity (2010-2030). Integral to addressing end-use is the ensuing behaviour of the end-user. End-use analysis aims to grasp and model customer usage by considering the electric demand per customer type, end-use category, appliance type and time of use. This project has focussed on the development of an interactive web application as a tool for residential end-users to improve energy efficiency through modified consumption behaviour and the adoption of energy efficient habits. The objectives have been aimed at educating an end-user through exposure to energy efficient guidelines and consumption analysis. Based on a Time Of Use-framework, a consumer’s understanding of appliance usage profiles can help realize the cost benefits associated with appliance scheduling. In order to achieve the desired functionality and with extendibility and ease of maintenance in mind, the application relies on the provision of dynamic content by means of a relational database structured around end-use categories and appliance types. In an effort to convey only relevant information in the simplest way, current web technology was evaluated. The resulting design has favoured an interactive, minimalistic, graphic presentation of content in the form of a Rich Internet Application. The development process has been divided into two phases. The residential energy consumption context has been substantiated with a case study of which the main objective and outcome has been to devise a methodology to generate usage profiles for household appliances. Phase one of the development process has been completed, as well as the case study. The conceptualization and framework for phase two has been established and the recommendation is to incorporate the methodology and usage profile results from the case study for implementation of the second phase. The effectiveness of the tool can only be evaluated once phase two of the application is complete. A beta release version of the final product can then be made available to a focus group for feedback. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Energie effektiwiteit, gesien as die effektiewe aanwending van energie, word herken as een van die eenvoudigste maniere om die volhoubare gebruik van hulpbronne te bevorder en betrek by implikasie die verbruiker. Die 2008 kragvoorsieningskrisis wat Suid-Afrika beleef het, het dringende tekorte aan die lig gebring en ’n gevolglike klemverskuiwing na bekostigbare, maklik aanpasbare oplossings, vernaamlik energie effektiwiteit. Aangesien die daarstelling van nuwe voorsieningskapasiteit beide duur is en baie tyd in beslag neem, was die voor die hand liggende alternatief om te fokus op vraag-kant toetrede. Huishoudelike elektriese verbruik is geïdentifiseer as ’n area waar die potensiaal vir verandering bestaan en strategieë om residensiële aanvraag aan te spreek het momentum gekry. Die kwesbaarheid van energiestelsels affekteer energie sekuriteit op tegniese, ekonomiese en sosiale vlakke. Suid-Afrikaanse verbruikers word gekonfronteer met stygende lewenskoste en ’n aansienlike toename in elektrisiteitspryse volgens die Geïntegreerde Hulpbron-Plan vir Elektrisiteit (2010-2030). Eie aan die aanspreek van verbruik is die voortvloeiende gedrag van die verbruiker. Verbruiksanalise poog om verbruik te begryp en te modelleer deur die elektriese aanvraag na gelang van verbruikerstipe, verbruikskategorie, toesteltipe en tyd van verbruik in aanmerking te neem. Hierdie projek het gefokus op die ontwikkeling van ’n interaktiewe web-toepassing as ’n instrument vir residensiële verbruikers om energie effektiwiteit te verbeter deur gewysigde verbruiksgedrag en die ingebruikneming van energie effektiewe gewoontes. Die doelwitte is gerig op die opvoeding van ’n verbruiker deur blootstelling aan riglyne vir energie effektiewe verbruik en verbruiksanalise. Gebaseer op ’n Tyd-Van-Verbruik-raamwerk, kan ’n verbruiker se begrip van toestelle se verbruiksprofiele ’n bydrae lewer om die koste-voordele geassosieer met toestel-skedulering te realiseer. Om sodoende die verlangde funksionaliteit te bewerkstellig en met verlengbaarheid en gemak van onderhoud voor oë, steun die toepassing op die verskaffing van dinamiese inhoud deur middel van ’n relasionele databasis wat gestruktureer is rondom verbruikskategorieë en toesteltipes. In ’n poging om slegs toepaslike informasie in die eenvoudigste vorm weer te gee, is teenswoordige web tegnologie geevalueer. Die vooruitspruitende ontwerp is ’n interaktiewe, minimalistiese, grafiese aanbieding van die inhoud in die vorm van ’n sogenaamde "Rich Internet Application". Die ontwikkelingsproses is ingedeel in twee fases. Die huishoudelike energieverbruikskonteks is bevestig deur middel van ’n gevallestudie waarvan die vernaamste doelwit en uitkoms was om ’n metodologie daar te stel om verbruiksprofiele van huishoudelike toestelle te genereer. Fase een van die ontwikkelingsproses is voltooi asook die gevallestudie. Die konsepsuele onwikkeling en raamwerk vir fase twee is reeds gevestig en die aanbeveling is om die metodologie en verbruiksprofielresultate van die gevallestudie te inkorporeer vir implementering van die tweede fase. Die effektiwiteit van die toepassing kan eers geevalueer word sodra fase twee afgehandel is. ’n Beta-weergawe vrystelling van die finale produk kan dan beskikbaar gestel word aan ’n fokusgroep vir terugvoer.

Cooling, Heating, and Power (CHP) is an emerging category of energy systems consisting of power generation equipment coupled with thermally activated components. The application of CHP systems to residential and small commercial buildings is known as micro-CHP (m-CHP). This instructional module has been developed to introduce engineering students to m-CHP. In the typical engineering curriculum, a number of courses could contain topics related to m-CHP. Thermodynamics, heat transfer, HVAC, heat and power, thermal systems design, and alternate energy systems courses are appropriate m-CHP topics. The types of material and level of analysis for this range of courses vary. In thermodynamics or heat transfer, basic problems involving a m-CHP flavor are needed, but in an alternate energy systems course much more detail and content would be required. This instructional module contains both lecture material and a compilation of problems/exercises for both m-CHP systems and components.

The acceleration towards achieving a low carbon society has raised many challenges in the energy sector. The existing systems, highly dependent on fossil fuels, are not sustainable and recommendations are made to accelerate the transition by using more renewable and low-carbon sources of energy. By being responsible for over 70 % of the greenhouse gas emissions, cities or districts have a major role to play in this transition and present a large potential for implementation of renewable energy systems. The optimization of those systems and a better use of energy are crucial to reduce emissions and reach carbon neutrality. This study evaluates the potential of the implementation of three storage solutions for a decentralized energy system in a residential cluster in Ludvika, Sweden, equipped with photovoltaics panels. The first solution includes stationary batteries, the second includes a hydrogen storage solution and the third offers a hybrid solution from the two previous storages. Simulations were conducted using two numerical tools with an hourly resolution.The first scenario was conducted using Spine modelling tools, and the other simulations, including the cost analysis, were conducted on Excel with the support of Visual Basic for Applications. The comparison between the three solutions showed that the stationary batteries, blessed with a higher efficiency, offers the best results. The autonomy of the site, initially at 19.1 %, was raised to 22.8 % due to the batteries, and the system allowed to save up to 9.6 MW∙h per year. The investment price of the battery system was the highest of the three solutions. However, the payback period is reached in 20 years, within the average lifespan of the batteries and 10 years shorter than with the other solutions. The results also showed that the benefits of implementing a hydrogen storage solution were not visible as the excess in the photovoltaic production was not enough to cover the energy demand in a long-term period.

There is much potential to decrease energy consumption in the U.S. by encouraging compact, centralized development. Although many studies have examined the extent to which built environment and demographic factors are related to household energy use, few have considered both building and transportation energy together. We hypothesized that residents living further from city centers, or urban cores, consume more energy for both purposes than their inner city counterparts, resulting in a direct relationship between building and transportation energy usage. This hypothesis was tested with two case studies. The first focused on New York City. Annual building energy per unit of parcels, or tax lots, containing large multi-family structures was compared to the daily transportation energy use per household of traffic analysis zones (TAZs) (estimated with a regional travel demand model). Transportation energy showed a strong spatial pattern, with distance to urban core explaining 63% of variation in consumption. Building energy use was randomly distributed, resulting in a weak negative correlation with transportation energy. However, both correlation with distance to urban core and transportation energy became significant and positive when portion of detached single-family units for TAZs was used as a proxy for building energy. Structural equation models (SEMs) revealed a direct relationship between log lot depth and both uses of energy, and inverse relationship between portion of attached housing units and transportation energy. This supports the notion that sprawling development increases both the building and transportation energy consumption of households. For the second analysis, annual building and automobile energy use per household were estimated for block groups across the 50 most populous U.S. metropolitan regions with Esri Consumer Expenditure Data. Both forms of energy consumption per household were lowest in inner cities and increased at greater distances from urban cores. Although there may be some error in estimates from modeled expenditure data, characteristics associated with lower energy use, such as portion of attached housing units and commuters that utilize transit or pedestrian modes, were negatively correlated with distance to urban core. Overall, this work suggests there are spatial patterns to household energy consumption, with households further from urban cores using more building and transportation energy. There is the greatest gain in efficiency to be had by suburban residents.