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No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Daniel Augusta Zacarias - 2017 (1).pdf: 10564997 bytes, checksum: 3beb8a6a9c5b45ffef1c47b91fb5ee3c (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-12-15 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Biodiversity conservation is in crisis and urgent responses are needed to reverse the extinction of species, the proliferation of invasive species and the fragmentation of habitats. Among several approaches being implemented, the protection of species with great dispersal capacity and that play important ecological role has been advocated as a solution, since the protection of their habitat in parallel contributes to the protection of other species and habitats. The elephant, a megagardener of forests and savannahs, represents this type of species in the sense that it inhabits vast areas, has a high dispersal capacity and guarantees the dispersion and growth of plant species in extensive areas. Unfortunately, the current situation of the elephant is not positive and international efforts have been developed to reverse the current scenarios of reduction of its abundance and the protection of its habitat. This thesis focuses on African elephant species (Loxodonta africana and Loxodonta cyclotis) and aims to contribute to the knowledge of the main challenges that must be embraced for their protection, using an interdisciplinary approach involving scientometric analysis, climate niche modelling, multi-scale modelling of habitat connectivity, quasi-linear regression models and structural equations and knowledge syntheses. Chapter I presents a systematic review of conservation genetics studies of the African savannah elephant and discusses the main research areas, the elephant populations involved and the main lines of research addressed. Chapter 2 presents the modelling of the climatic niche response to multi-temporal climate change and determines the potential for connectivity between remaining elephant habitats and chapter 3 presents the interaction between environmental, socioeconomic and governance indicators to explain abundance of elephants in Africa, based on the most recent IUCN estimates. The fourth chapter discusses the main challenges associated with the introduction of African elephants as a strategy for the recovery of lost ecological functions with the extinction of megafauna in the Pleistocene, and the fifth chapter, which concludes, presents the synthesis of challenges and opportunities for the conservation of African elephants. / A conservação da biodiversade está em crise e são necessárias respostas urgentes para reverter a extinção de espécies, a proliferação de espécies invasoras e a fragmentação de habitats. Dentre as várias abordagens sendo implementadas, a proteção de espécies com grande capacidade de dispersão e que desempenham papel ecológico importante tem sido advogada como solução, na medida em que a proteção de seu habitat paralelamente contribui para a proteção de outras espécies e habitats. O elefante, megajardineiro das florestas e savanas, representa este tipo de espécies, no sentido em que habita vastas áreas, tem elevada capacidade de dispersão e garante a dispersão e crescimento de espécies vegetais por vastas áreas. Infelizmente a situação actual do elefante não é positiva e esforços internacionais têm sido desenvolvidos no sentido de reverter os atuais cenários de redução de sua abundancia e a proteção do seu habitat. Esta tese debruça-se sobre as espécies de elefante africano (Loxodonta africana e Loxodonta cyclotis) e procura contribuir para o conhecimento dos principais desafios que devem ser abraçados para a sua proteção, servindo-se de uma abordagem interdisciplinar envolvendo análise cienciométrica, modelagem de nicho climático, modelagem multi-escala de conectividade de habitats, modelos de regressão quasi-linear e de equações estruturais e sínteses de conhecimento. O capítulo 1 apresenta faz a revisão sistemática dos estudos de genética de conservação do elefante africano de savana e discute os principais eixos de pesquisa, as populações de elefantes envolvidas e as principais linhas de pesquisa abordadas. O capítulo 2 apresenta a modelagem da resposta do nicho climático em função de alterações climáticas multi-temporais e determina o potencial de conectividade entre os habitats remanescentes de elefantes e o capítulo 3 apresenta a interação entre indicadores ambientais, socioeconômicos e de governança para explicar a abundância de elefantes em África, tomando como base nas mais recentes estimativas da IUCN. O quarto capítulo discute os principais desafios associados à introdução de elefantes africanos como estratégia para a recuperação de funções ecológicas perdidas com a extinção da megafauna no Pleistoceno e o quinto capítulo, que faz de conclusão, apresenta a síntese dos desafios e oportunidades para a conservação dos elefantes africanos.

Rewilding aims at the restoration of lost ecosystems by re-introducing large herbivores. In northern Siberia, the demise of the mammoth steppe ecosystem at the end of the Pleistocene has been related to the loss of megafauna due to human overhunting. Others argue that climate change at the beginning of the Holocene has triggered the shift from dry, cold steppe vegetation to wet and low productive tundra and taiga vegetation. Despite many different opinions and ongoing discussions on the topic, few case studies are available to test the proposed hypotheses. In this thesis I try to bridge the theoretical backgrounds of palaeoecology and contemporary grazing ecology, and apply these to new data from grazed steppes and surrounding vegetation in Yakutia. This study region is suitable to shed light on the importance of grazers for the (mammoth) steppe vegetation because Yakutia was dominated by mammoth steppe in Pleistocene glacials, and the extrazonal steppes of today are considered potential relics; permafrost deposits in close proximity to these steppes allow palaeobotanical reconstructions of vegetation from the same area; and two game parks, one in Central Yakutia, one in northeastern Yakutia, allow to study grazing impact on contemporary vegetation, specifically steppes. The first part of the thesis focuses on current grassland and steppe vegetation in Russia in general and in Yakutia specifically. Chapter highlights the biological diversity of Russia´s grasslands under diverse climatic and edaphic consditions. It highlights the value of Russian steppes for nature conservation, shows that most grasslands are of agricultural origin and that cessation of land use can pose a threat to both natural and secondary grasslands. Chapter 2 focuses on the phytosociology of extrazonal steppes and other grasslands of Yakutia, and on the harsh climatic and the special edaphic conditions they inhabit. It demonstrates relationships to southern zonal steppes, despite lower species diversity and unique associations with a high contribution of alpine plants. The second part of the thesis addresses the evidence of grazing in the palaorecord as well as effects and importance of grazing for contemporary vegetation. Chapter 3 aims at a comparison of current vegetation with Pleistocene fossil remains in order to find the closest analogues of mammoth steppe vegetation. It demonstrates that meadow steppes formed large parts of the vegetation in both cold and warm stages, only shifting in proportions. Disturbance indicators from grazing animals were more common in the fossil record than today. Chapter 4 discusses the influence of grazing on current vegetation under the given harsh climate; on plant species and trait composition, as well as on vegetation productivity. Climate and soil conditions seem to be the most important determinants of steppe and surrounding vegetation. Large grazers like bison can alter vegetation structure and plant communities on the local scale, but do not alter composition dramatically nor do they increase vegetation productivity in the given settings. In summary, steppes are an important part of biodiversity in Russia and specifically in Yakutia today. The extrazonal steppes of Yakutia are no direct relics of the mammoth steppe, and are not dependent on grazing. However, grazing of large herbivores, such as bison, can locally open up vegetation, and in a continental climate, drive grasslands towards a more steppic character. Further research is needed to investigate the details of these processes and how they could translate to the landscape scale.:Chapter 1: General Introduction 1 1.1. Large mammal extinctions and the onset of the Anthropocene 1 1.2. The 'mammoth steppe' 3 1.2.1. Definitions and concepts 3 1.2.2. Environmental conditions 4 1.2.3. Vegetation of the mammoth steppe 6 1.2.4. Megafauna and suggested ecosystem processes of the mammoth steppe 7 1.2.5. The demise of the mammoth steppe 9 1.3. Grazing ecology 11 1.3.1. Effects of herbivores on vegetation 11 1.3.2. Effects of herbivores on ecosystem processes 14 1.4. Study area 15 1.4.1. Central and northeastern Yakutia 15 1.4.2. Pleistocene Park and the Ust-Buotoma Bisonary 18 1.5. Chapter outline 19 Chapter 2: Land Use of Natural and Secondary Grasslands in Russia 20 2.1. Introduction 21 2.2. Origin and types of grasslands 26 2.2.1. Natural grasslands 26 2.2.1.1. Steppes 26 2.2.1.2. Alpine grasslands 32 2.2.1.3. Azonal grasslands 33 2.2.2. Secondary grasslands 34 2.3. Agronomic Use of grasslands 34 2.3.1. History of land use 34 2.3.2. Current practice of grassland management 38 2.4. Ecological and economic value of grasslands 40 2.5. Threats to grasslands 43 2.6. Conservation of grasslands 48 2.6.1. Legal aspects 48 2.6.2. Prioritization 50 2.6.3. Conservation of grasslands: Protected Areas (PAs) 51 2.7. Conclusions 53 Chapter 3: Extrazonal steppes and other temperate grasslands of northern Siberia - Phytosociological classification and ecological characterization 55 3.1. Introduction 57 3.2. Methods 60 3.3. Results 61 3.3.1. Overview: classification and ordination 61 3.3.2. Description of communities 67 3.3.2.1. Meadows and wet grasslands 67 3.3.2.2. Steppes 68 3.3.3. Phytosociological synopsis 73 3.4. Discussion 75 3.4.1. Meadows 75 3.4.2. Steppes 76 3.4.3. Tundra steppes 80 3.5. Conclusions 81 Cahpter 4: Woodlands and steppes: Pleistocene vegetation in Yakutia´s most continental part recorded in the Batagay permafrost sequence 82 4.1. Introduction 84 4.1.1. Regional setting 86 4.2. Material and methods 87 4.2.1. Material 87 4.2.2. Sampling and preparation 90 4.2.3. Macrofossil preparation and identification 91 4.2.4. Charcoal 91 4.2.5. Palynology preparation and identification 91 4.2.6. Invertebrate sampling and identification 92 4.2.7. Reconstruction of palaeo-vegetation 92 4.3. Results 94 4.3.1. Vegetation of the last cold stage 95 4.3.2. Vegetation of the last interglacial 107 4.3.3. History of local vegetation and environment throughout the sequence 113 4.3.3.1. Unit IV 113 4.3.3.2. Unit III 114 4.3.3.3. Unit II 114 4.4. Discussion 121 4.4.1. Steppes persistent throughout the investigated timespan 121 4.4.2. Steppes in northeast Siberia: Pleistocene survivors or Holocene immigrants? 124 4.4.3. Climatic implications 126 4.5. Conclusions 129 Chapter 5: Grazing at the limit 􀂱 effects of large herbivore grazing on relics of presumed mammoth steppe in NE-Siberia 131 5.1. Introduction 133 5.2. Methods 137 5.2.1. Field sampling and data collection 137 5.2.2. Data analysis 138 5.2.2.1. Species composition 138 5.2.2.2. Plant trait composition 138 5.2.2.3. Taxonomic and functional diversity 139 5.2.2.4. Productivity and chemical composition of vegetation 139 5.3. Results 139 5.3.1. Species composition 140 5.3.2. Trait composition 142 5.3.3. Taxonomic and functional diversity 143 5.3.4. Productivity and chemical composition of vegetation 144 5.4. Discussion 145 5.4.1. Effect of microclimate 145 5.4.2. Grazing effects 146 5.4.3. Implications for rewilding in Siberia 149 Chapter 6: Synthesis - Yakutian steppes and rewilding the mammoth steppe 151 6.1. Contemporary grasslands and herbivore pastures in Yakutia 151 6.2. Contemporary steppes and tundra steppes 152 6.2.1. Relics of the mammoth steppe?! 154 6.3. The role of grazers today - and their proposed role in the mammoth steppe 157 6.4. Outlook on rewilding 166 Chapter 7: Conclusions 174 Chapter 8: Summary 175 Chapter 9: Zusammenfassung 177 II. References 179 III. Appendix 207 IV. List of abbreviations 263 V. Curriculum vitae 270 / Mit der Auswilderung von Großherbivoren wird oft das Ziel verfolgt, ein lange vergangenes Ökosystem wiederherzustellen. In Nordsibirien ist das die Mammutsteppe, deren Verlust auf die Ausrottung der Großherbivoren-Fauna durch menschliche Überjagung zurückgeführt wurde. Andererseits könnte auch der Klimawandel am Beginn des Holozäns für den Vegetationswandel von trockener, kalter Steppe zu feuchter und wenig produktiver Tundra und Taiga verantwortlich sein. Das Thema wird von verschiedenen Meinungen beherrscht und die Diskussion darüber dauert an; doch konkrete Studien, die diese Hypothesen überprüfen würden, sind selten. In meiner Dissertation versuche ich, eine Brücke zwischen Theorien aus der Paläoökologie und der rezenten Beweidungsökologie zu schlagen und diese auf die beweideten Steppen Yakutiens und deren umgebende Vegetation anzuwenden. Diese Studie liefert Erkenntnisse zur Bedeutung von Weidetieren für die (Mammut-)steppenvegetation, da Yakutien in Pleistozänen Kaltzeiten von Mammutsteppe bedeckt war und die rezenten, extrazonalen Steppen als potenzielle Reliktvegetation angesehen werden; Permafrostaufschlüsse in direkter Umgebung dieser Steppen die paläobotanische Rekonstruktion des selben Gebietes erlauben; und zwei Wildparks, einer in Zentralyakutien, einer im Nordosten Yakutiens, die Erforschung von Beweidungseffekten auf die rezente Vegetation, vor allem Steppenvegetation, ermöglichen. Der erste Teil meiner Dissertation bezieht sich auf die rezente Grasland- und Steppenvegetation Russlands mit Fokus auf Yakutien. Kapitel 1 stellt die biologische Vielfalt der Russischen Grasländer unter verschiedensten klimatischen und edaphischen Bedingungen heraus. Dabei steht die Bedeutung der Russischen Steppen für den Naturschutz im Fokus. Es wird deutlich, dass der Großteil der Grasländer auf landwirtschaftliche Nutzung zurückzuführen ist und dass eine Nutzungsaufgabe sowohl natürliche als auch sekundäre Grasländer bedroht. Kapitel 2 beschäftigt sich mit der Pflanzensozologie der extrazonalen Steppen und anderer Grasländer Yakutiens, sowie mit den speziellen klimatischen und edaphischen Bedingungen, unter denen sie existieren. Ich zeige die verwandtschaftlichen Beziehungen dieser Steppen mit den südlichen, zonalen Steppen, trotz ihrer geringeren Artenvielfalt und ihrer einzigartigen Assoziationen mit hohem Anteil alpiner Arten. Der zweite Teil meiner Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit den Hinweisen auf Beweidung in paläobotanischen Rekonstruktionen der Vegetation, sowie der Bedeutung von Beweidung in der rezenten Vegetation. Kapitel 3 stellt einen Vergleich zwischen der Artenzusammensetzung Pleistozäner Pflanzenfossilien mit denen rezenter Pflanzengesellschaften an, um die Vegetation zu definieren, die der Mammutsteppe am ähnlichsten ist. Dieser Vergleich zeigt, dass Wiesensteppen sowohl in Kalt- als auch in Warmzeiten vorkamen und nur in ihrem Anteil an der Gesamtvegetation schwankten. Störungszeiger für Beweidung waren häufiger in den fossilen Pflanzenresten zu finden als in rezenten Pflanzengesellschaften. Kapitel 4 diskutiert schließlich den Einfluss von Beweidung auf die rezente Vegetation unter den gegebenen extremen Klimaverhältnissen; auf die Zusammensetzung von Arten und Artmerkmalen einer Pflanzengesellschaft, sowie auf deren Produktivität. Die klimatischen und edaphischen Bedingungen scheinen ausschlaggebend für die Steppen- und umgebende Vegetation zu sein. Großherbivoren wie das Bison können allerdings lokal Veränderungen in der Vegetationsstruktur und Pflanzengesellschaften bewirken, wenn auch, unter den gegebenen Umständen, weder Artenzusammensetzung noch Produktivität drastisch verändert wurden. Steppen stellen einen bedeutenden Anteil der Russischen, und besonders Yakutischen, Biodiversität dar. Die extrazonalen Steppen Yakutiens sind keine unmittelbaren Relikte der Mammutsteppe und sind heute nicht auf Beweidung angewiesen. Trotzdem können Großherbivoren wie das Bison lokale Veränderungen bewirken: sie vermögen Baumbestände aufzulichten und, unter kontinentalem Klima, Wiesen hin zu einem mehr steppen-artigen Charakter zu verändern. Weitere Forschung ist nötig, um die Details der beobachteten Prozesse zu erkunden und ihre Übertragbarkeit auf die Landschaftsebene zu überprüfen.:Chapter 1: General Introduction 1 1.1. Large mammal extinctions and the onset of the Anthropocene 1 1.2. The 'mammoth steppe' 3 1.2.1. Definitions and concepts 3 1.2.2. Environmental conditions 4 1.2.3. Vegetation of the mammoth steppe 6 1.2.4. Megafauna and suggested ecosystem processes of the mammoth steppe 7 1.2.5. The demise of the mammoth steppe 9 1.3. Grazing ecology 11 1.3.1. Effects of herbivores on vegetation 11 1.3.2. Effects of herbivores on ecosystem processes 14 1.4. Study area 15 1.4.1. Central and northeastern Yakutia 15 1.4.2. Pleistocene Park and the Ust-Buotoma Bisonary 18 1.5. Chapter outline 19 Chapter 2: Land Use of Natural and Secondary Grasslands in Russia 20 2.1. Introduction 21 2.2. Origin and types of grasslands 26 2.2.1. Natural grasslands 26 2.2.1.1. Steppes 26 2.2.1.2. Alpine grasslands 32 2.2.1.3. Azonal grasslands 33 2.2.2. Secondary grasslands 34 2.3. Agronomic Use of grasslands 34 2.3.1. History of land use 34 2.3.2. Current practice of grassland management 38 2.4. Ecological and economic value of grasslands 40 2.5. Threats to grasslands 43 2.6. Conservation of grasslands 48 2.6.1. Legal aspects 48 2.6.2. Prioritization 50 2.6.3. Conservation of grasslands: Protected Areas (PAs) 51 2.7. Conclusions 53 Chapter 3: Extrazonal steppes and other temperate grasslands of northern Siberia - Phytosociological classification and ecological characterization 55 3.1. Introduction 57 3.2. Methods 60 3.3. Results 61 3.3.1. Overview: classification and ordination 61 3.3.2. Description of communities 67 3.3.2.1. Meadows and wet grasslands 67 3.3.2.2. Steppes 68 3.3.3. Phytosociological synopsis 73 3.4. Discussion 75 3.4.1. Meadows 75 3.4.2. Steppes 76 3.4.3. Tundra steppes 80 3.5. Conclusions 81 Cahpter 4: Woodlands and steppes: Pleistocene vegetation in Yakutia´s most continental part recorded in the Batagay permafrost sequence 82 4.1. Introduction 84 4.1.1. Regional setting 86 4.2. Material and methods 87 4.2.1. Material 87 4.2.2. Sampling and preparation 90 4.2.3. Macrofossil preparation and identification 91 4.2.4. Charcoal 91 4.2.5. Palynology preparation and identification 91 4.2.6. Invertebrate sampling and identification 92 4.2.7. Reconstruction of palaeo-vegetation 92 4.3. Results 94 4.3.1. Vegetation of the last cold stage 95 4.3.2. Vegetation of the last interglacial 107 4.3.3. History of local vegetation and environment throughout the sequence 113 4.3.3.1. Unit IV 113 4.3.3.2. Unit III 114 4.3.3.3. Unit II 114 4.4. Discussion 121 4.4.1. Steppes persistent throughout the investigated timespan 121 4.4.2. Steppes in northeast Siberia: Pleistocene survivors or Holocene immigrants? 124 4.4.3. Climatic implications 126 4.5. Conclusions 129 Chapter 5: Grazing at the limit 􀂱 effects of large herbivore grazing on relics of presumed mammoth steppe in NE-Siberia 131 5.1. Introduction 133 5.2. Methods 137 5.2.1. Field sampling and data collection 137 5.2.2. Data analysis 138 5.2.2.1. Species composition 138 5.2.2.2. Plant trait composition 138 5.2.2.3. Taxonomic and functional diversity 139 5.2.2.4. Productivity and chemical composition of vegetation 139 5.3. Results 139 5.3.1. Species composition 140 5.3.2. Trait composition 142 5.3.3. Taxonomic and functional diversity 143 5.3.4. Productivity and chemical composition of vegetation 144 5.4. Discussion 145 5.4.1. Effect of microclimate 145 5.4.2. Grazing effects 146 5.4.3. Implications for rewilding in Siberia 149 Chapter 6: Synthesis - Yakutian steppes and rewilding the mammoth steppe 151 6.1. Contemporary grasslands and herbivore pastures in Yakutia 151 6.2. Contemporary steppes and tundra steppes 152 6.2.1. Relics of the mammoth steppe?! 154 6.3. The role of grazers today - and their proposed role in the mammoth steppe 157 6.4. Outlook on rewilding 166 Chapter 7: Conclusions 174 Chapter 8: Summary 175 Chapter 9: Zusammenfassung 177 II. References 179 III. Appendix 207 IV. List of abbreviations 263 V. Curriculum vitae 270

Människans påverkan på naturen har skapat stora problem som hotar allt liv på jorden. Den häruppsatsen tar avstamp i naturvårdsmetoden rewilding som i grunden går ut på att återskapanågonting som en gång har varit. Vi vill med den här uppsatsen uppmärksamma människansplats i naturen och på så sätt ge rewilding en bredare definition. En intervju med projektledarenför naturvårdsprojektet LIFE - Bridging the Gap (BTG) har genomförts samt en medieanalys påprojektets informationsfilmer. Det insamlade materialet har sammanställts för att sedan utföraen diskursanalys av hur naturvärden framställs i projektet och hur samband mellan natur ochkultur kan synliggöras. Resultatet visar på att rewilding framställs som frånkopplat människan,men definitionen enligt tidigare forskning går ändå att applicera på projektet. Eklandskapetframställs med kulturella värden. Vi fann att återskapande av natur även innebär återskapandeav kultur. Vilket lett fram till slutsatsen att rewilding också innebär återskapande av kultur. / Man's impact on nature has created major problems that threaten our own existence as well asall life on earth. This thesis is based on the nature conservation method rewilding, which isabout recreating something that once was. With this essay, we want to draw attention to man'splace in nature and thus give rewilding a broader definition. An interview with the projectmanager for the nature restoration project LIFE - Bridging the Gap has been carried out and amedia analysis of the project's information films. The collected material has been compiled tothen perform a discourse analysis of how natural values are presented in the project. Theidentified discourses are put in a cultural theoretical perspective. The results show thatrewilding is presented as something disconnected from humans, but the definition according toprevious research can still be applied to the project. The oak landscape acquires cultural andhuman values. We found that the re-creation of nature also means the re-creation of culture.Which led to the conclusion that rewilding also means re-creating culture.

The risk of carbon emissions from permafrost is linked to an increase in ground temperature and thus in particular to thermal insulation by vegetation, soil layers and snow cover. Ground insulation can be influenced by the presence of large herbivores browsing for food in both winter and summer. In this study, we examine the potential impact of large herbivore presence on the soil carbon storage in a thermokarst landscape in northeastern Siberia. Our aim in this pilot study is to conduct a first analysis on whether intensive large herbivore grazing may slow or even reverse permafrost thaw by affecting thermal insulation through modifying ground cover properties. As permafrost soil temperatures are important for organic matter decomposition, we hypothesize that herbivory disturbances lead to differences in ground-stored carbon. Therefore, we analyzed five sites with a total of three different herbivore grazing intensities on two landscape forms (drained thermokarst basin, Yedoma upland) in Pleistocene Park near Chersky. We measured maximum thaw depth, total organic carbon content, δ13C isotopes, carbon-nitrogen ratios, and sediment grain-size composition as well as ice and water content for each site. We found the thaw depth to be shallower and carbon storage to be higher in intensively grazed areas compared to extensively and non-grazed sites in the same thermokarst basin. First data show that intensive grazing leads to a more stable thermal ground regime and thus to increased carbon storage in the thermokarst deposits and active layer. However, the high carbon content found within the upper 20 cm on intensively grazed sites could also indicate higher carbon input rather than reduced decomposition, which requires further studies including investigations of the hydrology and general ground conditions existing prior to grazing introduction. We explain our findings by intensive animal trampling in winter and vegetation changes, which overcompensate summer ground warming. We conclude that grazing intensity—along with soil substrate and hydrologic conditions—might have a measurable influence on the carbon storage in permafrost soils. Hence the grazing effect should be further investigated for its potential as an actively manageable instrument to reduce net carbon emission from permafrost.

Human influence extends across the globe, fromthe tallestmountains to the deep bottom of the oceans. There is a growing call for nature to be protected from the negative impacts of human activity (particularly intensive agriculture); so-called “land sparing”. A relatively new approach is “rewilding”, defined as the restoration of self-sustaining and complex ecosystems, with interlinked ecological processes that promote and support one another while minimising or gradually reducing human intervention. The key theoretical basis of rewilding is to return ecosystems to a “natural” or “self-willed” state with trophic complexity, dispersal (and connectivity) and stochastic disturbance in place. However, this is constrained by context-specific factors whereby it may not be possible to restore the native species that formed part of the trophic structure of the ecosystem if they are extinct (e.g., mammoths, Mammuthus spp., aurochs, Bos primigenius); and, populations/communities of native herbivores/predators may not be able to survive or be acceptable to the public in small scale rewilding projects close to areas of high human density. Therefore, the restoration of natural trophic complexity and disturbance regimes within rewilding projects requires careful consideration if the broader conservation needs of society are to be met. In some circumstances, managers will require a more flexible deliberate approach to intervening in rewilding projects using the range of tools in their toolbox (e.g., controlled burning regimes; using domestic livestock to replicate the impacts of extinct herbivore species), even if this is only in the early stages of the rewilding process. If this approach is adopted, then larger areas can be given over to conservation, because of the potential broader benefits to society from these spaces and the engagement of farmers in practises that are closer to their traditions. We provide examples, primarily European, where domestic and semi-domestic livestock are used by managers as part of their rewilding toolbox. Here managers have looked at the broader phenotype of livestock species as to their suitability in different rewilding systems. We assess whether there are ways of using livestock in these systems for conservation, economic (e.g., branded or certified livestock products) and cultural gains.

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No description available.