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Conservation science in rivers is still lagging behind its terrestrial and marine counterparts, despite increasing threats to freshwater biodiversity and extinction rates being estimated as five times higher than in terrestrial ecosystems. Internationally, most protected rivers have been assigned reserve status in the framework of terrestrial conservation plans, neglecting catchment effects of disturbance. While freshwater conservation tools are mainly index based (e.g. richness, rarity), modern terrestrial and marine conservation planning methods use complementarity-based algorithms - proven to be most efficient at protecting a large number of taxa for the least cost. The few complementarity-based lotic conservation efforts all use broad river classifications instead of biota as targets, a method heavily disputed in the literature. They also ignore current condition and future vulnerability. It was the aim of this thesis to develop a framework for conservation planning that: a) accounts for the connected nature of rivers b) is complementarity based and uses biota as targets c) integrates current status and future vulnerability I developed two different approaches using macroinvertebrate datasets from Australia, Canada and the USA. The first new method was a site/based two-tiered approach integrating condition and conservation value, based on RIVPACS/AUSRIVAS � a modelling technique that predicts macroinvertebrate composition. The condition stage assesses biodiversity loss by estimating a site-specific expected assemblage and comparing it to the actual observed assemblage. Sites with significant biodiversity loss are flagged for restoration, or other management actions. All other sites progress to the conservation stage, in which an index of site-specific taxonomic rarity is calculated. This second index (O/E BIODIV) assesses the number of rare taxa (as defined by &lt50% probability of occurrence). Using this approach on a dataset near Sydney, NSW, Australia, I was able to identify three regions: 1) an area in need of restoration; 2) a region of high conservation value and 3) an area that had high conservation potential if protection and restoration measures could counteract present disturbance. However, a second trial run with three datasets from the USA and Canada highlighted problems with O/E (BIODIV). If common taxa are predicted at lower probabilities of occurrence (p&lt50%) because of model error, they enter the index and change O/E (BIODIV). Therefore, despite an attractive theoretical grounding, the application of O/E (BIODIV) will be restricted to datasets where strong environmental gradients explain a large quantity of variation in the data and permit accurate predictions of rare taxa. It also requires extensive knowledge of regional species pools to ensure that introduced organisms are not counted in the index. The second approach was a proper adaptation of terrestrial complementarity algorithms and an extension to the Irreplaceability-Vulnerability framework by Margules and Pressey (2000). For this large-scale method, distributions for 400 invertebrate taxa were modeled across 1854 subcatchments in Victoria, Australia using Generalised Additive Models (GAMs). The best heuristic algorithm to estimate conservation value was determined by calculating the minimum area needed to cover all 400 taxa. Solutions were restricted to include rules for the protection of whole catchments upstream of a subcatchment that contained the target taxon. A summed rarity algorithm proved to be most efficient, beating the second best solution by 100 000 hectares. To protect 90% of the taxa, only 2% of the study area need to be protected. This increases to 10% of the study area when full representation of the targets is required. Irreplaceability was calculated by running the heuristic algorithm 1000 times with 90% of the catchments randomly removed. Two statistics were then estimated: f (the frequency of selection across 1000 runs) and average c (contribution to conservation targets). Four groups of catchments were identified: a) catchments that have high contributions and are always selected; b) catchments that have high contributions and are not always selected; c) catchments that are always chosen but do not contribute many taxa; d) catchments that are rarely chosen and did not contribute many taxa. Summed c, the sum of contributions over 1000 runs was chosen as an indicator of irreplaceability, integrating the frequency of selection and the number of taxa protected. Irreplaceability (I) was then linked to condition (C) and vulnerability (V) to create the ICVframework for river conservation planning. Condition was estimated using a stressor gradient approach (SGA), in which GIS layers of disturbance were summarised to three principal axes using principal components analysis (PCA). The main stressor gradient � agriculture � classified 75% of the study area as disturbed, a value consistent with existing assessments of river condition. Vulnerability was defined as the likelihood that land use in a catchment would intensify in the future. Hereby current tenure was compared to land capability. If a catchment would support a land use that would have a stronger effect on the rivers than its current tenure, it was classified as vulnerable. 79% of catchments contained more than 50% vulnerable land. When integrating the three estimators in the ICV-framework, seven percent of catchments were identified as highly irreplaceable but in degraded condition. These were flagged for urgent restoration. Unprotected, but highly irreplaceable and highly vulnerable catchments that were still in good condition made up 2.5% of the total area. These catchments are prime candidates for river reserves. The ICV framework developed here is the first method for systematic conservation planning in rivers that is complementarity-based, biota-driven but flexible to other conservation targets and accounts for catchment effects, thus fulfilling all the gaps outlined in the aims.

Thesis (MSc (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: During 2007, two evidence-based studies were undertaken in two catchment areas in South Africa. The first study ascertained the relationships between demographic attributes and general awareness, human impacts, attitudes and water use behaviour. The second study determined whether or not State-of-River (SoR) materials developed for foundation phase learners (grades 1 to 3) improved their understanding of and influenced their attitudes towards river conservation. Surveys were conducted amongst learners (n=1178) and parents (n=1144) from different cultures and socio-economic backgrounds. Questionnaires were available in three languages, namely English, isiXhosa and Afrikaans. The SoR reporting materials were not adequately distributed. The first study could therefore not ascertain whether increased awareness or attitudinal and behavioural changes could be ascribed to SoR reporting in the catchments. The majority of respondents (82%) indicated that there was a need for more information on rivers and 60% of the respondents indicated that they would participate in a follow-up survey. Thirty percent of respondents from the Buffalo catchment and 22% of respondents from the Hartenbos and Klein Brak catchment indicated that they use water very sparingly. Respondents from urban areas scored higher in their attitudes towards river conservation and were more aware of water issues than those from rural areas. Both attitudinal and awareness scores did not align with water use behaviour, with rural respondents using water more sparingly. Attitude and awareness improved with increased education levels. Respondents who indicated that they would rather pay more for water than change their water use behaviour showed the lowest score for attitude towards river conservation. Learners from the Buffalo rural area showed a significant increase in understanding the benefits that healthy rivers provide, and this can be ascribed to the distributed SoR activity book and poster. A survey consisting of quantitative and qualitative items, as well as participatory evaluations determined learners’ level of understanding of human impacts on rivers. The quantitative study showed learners from the Hartenbos and Klein Brak area as well as the Buffalo rural area improved the most over time. The qualitative items showed a 35% and 40% increase in the number of correctly listed items as either making a river happy (healthy) or sad (unhealthy) after exposure to SoR materials. Respondents from both catchments taking part in the participatory evaluations displayed an overall increase in their understanding of good practices, as well as the negative impact of human activities on rivers. Those learners that scored low in the participatory evaluations at time 1 showed the most improvement over time, concluding that those learners who knew the least at the start of the study, gained the most understanding of human impacts on rivers. All schools in the Hartenbos and Klein Brak catchment, with the exception of one, showed a slight increase in understanding of human impacts on rivers. Results from the schools in the Buffalo catchment were more variable. Data gathered demonstrated that the SoR materials helped learners to better understand benefits from clean rivers as well as human impact on rivers. Although the learners from urban areas had a better understanding of the concept of river conservation before contact with the SoR materials, learners from the rural areas showed the most improvement over time. There was an increase in the number of learners that showed a willingness to take responsibility for their actions that could impact on river health. Far more learners mentioned remediation types of actions than protection or preventative actions. A change in peoples’ attitudes and behaviour is needed to ensure adequate protection of South Africa’s natural water resources. Imprinting values and perceptions that would last into adulthood need intervention at an early age and throughout children’s’ formative years. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gedurende 2007, twee bewysgebaseerde ondersoeke is in twee wateropvangsgebiede in Suid Afrika gedoen. Die eerste studie was gerig op die bepaling van die verband tussen demografiese kenmerke, algemene bewustheid, menslike impak, houdings en waterverbruik. Die tweede studie het bepaal of die Stand-van-Rivier (SvR) inligtingsmateriaal wat vir grondslagfase leerlinge (graad 1 tot 3) ontwikkel is, bygedra het tot hulle begrip van en houding jeens die bewaring van riviere. Steekproeftrekkings het leerlinge (n=1178) en ouers (n=1144) vanuit verskillende kultuur- en sosioekonomiese agtergronde betrek. Vraelyste was in drie landstale naamlik Engels, Xhosa en Afrikaans beskikbaar. Die SvR kommunikasie material is nie toereikend versprei nie. Die eerste studie kon derhalwe nie bepaal of groter bewustheid of veranderings in houding en gedrag in hierdie opvangsgebiede aan die SvR verslaggewing toegeskryf kon word nie. Die meerderheid respondente (82%) het aangedui dat daar ‘n tekort and rivierinligting is en 60% van die respondente het hulself bereidwillig verklaar om aan ’n opvolgstudie deel te neem. Dertig persent van die respondente uit die Buffels- en 22% uit die Hartenbos- en Klein Brak-opvangsgebiede het aangedui dat hulle water spaarsamig gebruik. Respondente afkomstig van stedelike gebiede het beter rivierbewaringshoudings getoon en was meer bewus van wateraangeleenthede as die van landelike gebiede. Houdings en bewustheids-vlakke het nie ooreengestem met waterverbruik nie – landelike respondente gebruik water meer spaarsamig. Beide houdings en algemene bewustheid het toegeneem met hoër onderwysvlakke. Respondente wat aangedui het dat hulle eerder meer vir water sal betaal as om hulle verbruik te verminder, het die swakste houding jeens die bewaring van riviere getoon. Leerlinge uit die landelike gebiede van die Buffels opvangsgebied het groter begrip getoon vir die voordele wat gesonde riviere inhou, en dit kan toegeskryf word aan die aktiwiteitsboek en SvR plakkaat wat onder hulle versprei is. ‘n Steekproef bestaande uit kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe items, sowel as deelnemende evaluasies is gebruik om leerlinge se vlak van begrip van menslike impak op riviere te bepaal. Die kwantitatiewe studie het aangedui dat die begrip van leerlinge van die Hartenbos en Klein Brak sowel as die van die landelike Buffelsrivieropvangsgebiede oor tyd die meeste toegeneem het. Op die vraag wat riviere gelukkig (gesond) of hartseer (ongesond) maak, het die kwalitatiewe items, na blootstelling van die leerders aan die SvR materiaal, ‘n toename van 35% en 40% in korrekte antwoorde getoon. In die deelnemende evaluasie het respondente van beide opvangsgebiede ‘n toename in begrip van goeie praktyke sowel as die negatiewe impak van menslike aktiwiteite op riviere getoon. Leerlinge wat swak gevaar het in die deelnemende evaluasie gedurende die eerste rondte het die meeste vordering getoon. Die gevolgtrekking is dus dat leerlinge wat die minste geweet het aan die begin van die studie, die meeste geleer het oor menslike impak op riviere. Op een na, het alle skole in die Hartenbos- en Klein Brakrivieropvangsgebied ‘n geringe verhoging in begrip van menslike impak op riviere getoon. Resultate van skole uit die Buffelsopvangsgebied het meer gevarieer. Data versamel het gedemonstreer dat die gebruik van die aktiwiteitsboek en plakkate gelei het tot ’n beter begrip by leerders van die voordele van skoon riviere asook van menslike impak op riviere. Alhoewel die leerlinge van stedelike gebiede beter begrip getoon het oor rivierbewaring voor kontak met die SvR material, het die landelike leerlinge die grootste toename in begrip oor die verloop van die studie getoon. Daar was ook ‘n toename in die aantal leerlinge wat bereid was om verantwoordelikheid vir hulle aktiwiteite wat ‘n impak op riviergesondheid kon hê, te aanvaar. Veel meer leerlinge het tydens die tweede fase verwys na herstel eerder as beskermings of voorkomende gedrag. ’n Verandering in mense se houdings en gedrag is noodsaaklik om genoegsame bewaring van Suid Afrika se natuurlike waterhulpbronne te verseker. Waarde sisteme en persepsies wat met volwassewording steeds geldig sal wees, word reeds teen ’n vroeë ouderdom, gedurende kinders se vormingsjare, vasgelê.

古今中外，河川的多重樣貌皆忠實地記錄都市發展變遷，爰此，河川發展與都市規劃密不可分，而結合都市河川整治的水岸發展是一個都市過度成長之再生途徑，而水岸發展之成敗繫於河川保育之良窳。以往圍堵河川之水泥思維，不僅切斷河川生物棲息地，更埋下自然反撲之遠因；然而缺乏當地民意考量之重大公共工程建設，往往侷限於單一目標之達成，忽略當地河川生態紋理與民眾需求等整體考量方向。近年來，都市居民對於生活品質要求提高，民眾參與理念成為落實都市空間改造的重點，以地方性非政府組織形式加入參與式規劃，係屬未來進行干擾自然、人文環境等重大公共工程建設計畫進行時需考量之必然趨勢。 爰此，本研究為建立民眾參與河川保育決策模式，推動自然水岸之都市規劃方向。於重大公共建設危害地方生態與生活之際，以「台北都會區環河快速道路台北縣側建設計畫」永和段之居民抗爭為研究個案，探討民眾透過組織參與、影響決策模式之目的，分別以文獻回顧法、案例比較法及深度訪談法等研究方法進行分析、歸納與整理，進而提出以地方性非政府組織參與公共事務決策之模式運作，作為政府採納民意於計畫之際可採用途徑之參考，並提供相關建議作為法令與配套之修正與努力方向。 基於上述，藉由檢視民眾參與抗爭公共政策事件中之背景脈絡與行動策略，本研究所得出之結果為： 1. 地方性非政府組織得以突破集體行動邏輯困境之原因，係以人數稀少的組織成員與攸關切身利益之房價漲跌等誘因，共同克服因公共財而生搭便車之河川保育及重大計畫決策的參與經驗。 2. 由於考慮自然生態保育及其維護係屬十分長遠的尺度，故現今公共決策的衡量過程中仍未能兼顧「開發」與「保育」，而河川生態保育仍為政策考量上之相對弱勢。 3. 基於參與理論提出之參與主體、時機與策略三個要素，影響地方民眾團體參與決策模式及其成效之重要因素包括組織中的菁英核心領導、公部門回應態度積極、理性策略運作、非政府組織主導及操作媒體。 / Throughout the history of urban development, various images of rivers honestly depict its transition. As a result, river development and urban planning are closely related. Waterfront development combining urban planning with river straightening is a way to regenerate an urban environment. Besides, the key to successful waterfront development is river conservation. In the past, urban construction not only destroys aquatic habitats, but also sacrifices the amenity of inhabitants along the riverbank. However, huge public engineering construction without considering local inhabitants’ opinions usually focuses on one single objective and neglect ecological resources of the river and inhabitants’ demand for living by the riverbank. Nowadays, urban inhabitants have become highly aware of the demand for quality of life. To improve urban environment, the concept of public participation has become a crucial and imperative measure In other words, urban planning with public participation is an inevitable element when it comes to public engineering construction plan. Therefore, this thesis focuses on the participation of the residents of Yongho area. Yongho area is a part of Taipei metropolis, where the government originally planned to build a riverside viaduct along Hsintein River. The reason why Yongho residents oppose to this decision is that this riverside viaduct is nine stories high, which could gravely destroy the skyline of the riverbank area. This may lead to a series of undesirable results that impact on the living quality of Yongho residents. Therefore, they set up a local NGO to protest against this decision. In view of this opposition, this thesis tried to set up a feasible mechanism of public participation for river conservation policy and to build a natural waterfront city model. The study incorporates discussions of the interactive relations between Yongho residents and local authorities as well as the residents’ strategies to participate the policy decision-making. Consequently, by examining the social context and game plans within a series of public protest events, this thesis has obtained the following conclusions. 1. Local NGO overcame the dilemma of free-rider in the logic of collective action with small group and a windfall in real estate prices. 2. Public policy-makers still cannot consider development and conservation simultaneously when making policy decision. 3. Three elements, participative subject, timing and strategies, highly affect the efficiency of public participation. These elements include brilliant leadership, active response in the public sector, rational strategies, domination of Non-Governmental Organization, and media manipulation.