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This PhD thesis examines the ‘working through’ of traumatic memories of the Holocaust and representations of Romani cultural identity in autobiographical writing by Romanies in Germany and Austria. In writing their memories in German, these Romani writers ended the ‘muteness’ previously surrounding their own experiences of persecution in the Third Reich and demanded an end to the official silence regarding the Romani Holocaust in their home countries. The thesis aims to explore how the writing of these narratives works to create a space for Romani memories within German language written tradition and to assert a more positive Romani identity and space for this identity in their homelands. Further, it aims to demonstrate that, in the struggle to create this safe space, their texts also reveal insecurity and landscapes that are not free from threat. The thesis also addresses the broad question of whether or not the shift from oral to written tradition in order to represent experiences of the Holocaust will result in a continuation of Romani writing in Germany and Austria. The thesis begins by examining the first Romani accounts of Holocaust memories published in Germany (1985) and Austria (1988) and ends with more recent narratives published in 2006 (Germany) and 2007 (Austria). In chapters one and two on writing by Philomena Franz and Ceija Stojka, I focus on their pioneering texts as assertions of space for Romani identity within their homelands; I analyse how these authors work through their traumatic memories by narrating their experiences and by identifying the landscapes of Germany and Austria as Heimat. In chapter 3, I continue to explore themes of Heimat and identity in Alfred Lessing and Karl Stojka ’s accounts which, while working through their own traumatic memories of the Third Reich, struggle with the loss of Romani cultural identity in their homelands. In chapter four, I address the generational memory of the Holocaust in Otto Rosenberg’s account of his experiences in the concentration camps and his daughter Marianne Rosenberg’s recent autobiography. In chapter 5, I will examine the presence of the ‘threat of Auschwitz’ in Stefan Horvath’s writing, in which he remembers the attack on a Romani settlement in 1995 which killed his son and three other Romanies in Oberwart, Austria. In all of these chapters, attention will also be given to the editorial construction of these texts as well as their reception. Throughout the thesis, I take a comparative approach, referring to similarities and differences between the works of these authors.

This thesis identifies existing legislation that can provide an adequate system of regional and domestic rights based on a critique of existing protections applicable to Gypsy/Travellers in Scotland. A definition of Gypsies/Travellers is established and analysis of ethnicity undertaken focusing on race relations legislative definition and anthropological/sociological ethnicity definition, identifying obstacles to recognition, however concluding that all Gypsies/Travellers could satisfy these definitions. It is however identified that, to achieve equality, additional measures are necessary in the interpretation and application of existing human rights law with a need for positive action to achieve equality not only in law but in fact. International law is examined regarding minority protection and racial discrimination examining their relevance domestically in the United Kingdom. Regional legislation is similarly examined, in particular developing ECHR jurisprudence, the European Social Charter, the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and potential remedies in EU legislation. The Human Rights Act 1998 is also examined as potentially offering a compliance mechanism regarding obligations contained in the ECHR. Domestic race relations legislation is examined, particularly regarding positive duties and mechanisms for ensuring compliance with these duties, identifying shortcomings. Lastly future domestic equality legislation is examined and shortcomings identified in the current proposals of the United Kingdom. Legislation and case law referred to is correct at 1 November, 2008.

This thesis explored Gypsies' and Travellers' perceptions of the value and importance of literacy to themselves and their communities. It examined the political and social factors that affected the extent and availability of literacy provision for adult Gypsies and Travellers and their level of participation. It focused on how Gypsies' and Travellers' levels of literacy impacted on their ability to engage effectively with authority. The research focused on two rural and one urban authority in the South of England but also drew on information from neighbouring authorities and Ireland. A qualitative constructivist epistemology was adopted in which ethnography was the main research tool. The data were collected through in-depth interviews and informal conversations with Gypsies and Travellers, public officials and local politicians, a survey of adult education providers, observation of sundry national and local meetings, participant observation and analysis of the discourse and dialogue of two official forums and data from a variety of sources including television programmes and press reports. The research found that Gypsies and Travellers attached little value to textual literacy, did not view literacy as important to economic success and did not perceive the ability to read and write as contributing to their status or self esteem. Other skills were valued more highly. These attitudes challenge dominant education and development discourses which perceive textual literacy as essential to economic achievement, self esteem and status. The research also highlighted a vacuum in literacy and education policy and provision for adult Gypsies and Travellers who were largely invisible in post-school policy documents, even in those purporting to address equality issues. There was no targeted provision in the three authorities, only a few short term projects elsewhere and little interest among providers. Although mainstream provision was available to Gypsy and Travellers as to all adults, those who wished to learn preferred to teach themselves or be taught by friends and family. The research drew on current theories of discourse, power and control. Primary and secondary Discourses impacted on two areas, the absence of educational opportunities for adult Gypsies and Travellers and on their communicative practices and agency. The lack of targeted literacy provision for Gypsies and Travellers was not accidental but a result of deep seated negative attitudes constructed and maintained through the secondary Discourses of dominant groups and bureaucratic institutions. Interviews and observations revealed that language and discourse was more important to Gypsies and Travellers than the ability to read and write, particularly when communicating privately or publicly with authorities. In these contexts, their own primary discourses, learned through home and community practices, were insufficient. The Gypsies and Travellers who were formally educated and were bi-discoursal were able to operate within secondary institutional Discourses. Though others had life experiences which gave them some understanding of the Discourses of power and bureaucracy, they were not able to communicate or challenge as effectively. The research critiques current models of literacy provision for adults. Though aspects of the models can address specific literacy requirements in specific situations, none of the models including New Literacy Studies and critical literacies, sufficiently address the need to become bi-discoursal or develop the agency to affect decisions controlling their lives. Gypsies and Travellers fear formal education will lead to loss of identity, acculturation and assimilation, but without it they may lose what they seek to preserve. Different communities have different aspirations and face different tensions in different circumstances and each will make decisions accordingly. This research on Gypsies' and Travellers' perceptions and uses of literacy provides new insights into complex tensions and contradictions at both an empirical and theoretical level.

<p>Syftet med uppsatsen var att utreda romska ungdomars skolsituation i Västerås samt att föra en diskussion om studiens resultat i förhållande till Europarådets ramkonvention om nationella minoriteter. Syftet utreddes dels genom intervjuer med åtta romska elever och tre lärare därefter tolkades resultatet utifrån ett intersektionellt perspektiv. Vidare diskuterades resultatet med utgångspunkt i relevanta delar av ramkonventionen. Studien är kvalitativ och empirin analyserades genom en hermeneutisk tolkningsprocess. Vad som framkom i resultatet är att majoritetssamhällets etnocentrism påverkar unga romers skolsituation i Västerås eftersom romernas särskilda rättigheter i egenskap av nationell minoritet inte beaktas. Skolsituationen försätter de romska ungdomarna i en marginaliseringssituation där de pendlar mellan majoritetssamhällets krav och familjens förväntningar.</p>

Syftet med uppsatsen var att utreda romska ungdomars skolsituation i Västerås samt att föra en diskussion om studiens resultat i förhållande till Europarådets ramkonvention om nationella minoriteter. Syftet utreddes dels genom intervjuer med åtta romska elever och tre lärare därefter tolkades resultatet utifrån ett intersektionellt perspektiv. Vidare diskuterades resultatet med utgångspunkt i relevanta delar av ramkonventionen. Studien är kvalitativ och empirin analyserades genom en hermeneutisk tolkningsprocess. Vad som framkom i resultatet är att majoritetssamhällets etnocentrism påverkar unga romers skolsituation i Västerås eftersom romernas särskilda rättigheter i egenskap av nationell minoritet inte beaktas. Skolsituationen försätter de romska ungdomarna i en marginaliseringssituation där de pendlar mellan majoritetssamhällets krav och familjens förväntningar.

Academic researches suggests that Rroma face challenges of overcoming poverty, improving access to education, increasing employability and improving health. This thesis describes a qualitative investigation into the role of education to ensuring upward mobility for Rroma. Using a purposive sample, the research analysed the ethnic make-up of Rroma individuals and found that contrary to uninformed perceptions, Rroma community is immensely diverse and can be described through two generic types: a Traditional Gypsies type and a Modern Rroma type. The Traditional Gypsies type would generally describe the Gypsies who at individual or collective level still preserve in their day to day life a collection of Gypsy ethnic practices. By contrast, the Modern Rroma type would refer to those Rroma who having began recently or generations back a process of ethnic transition and/or assimilation into the wider Romanian community now share only a few traditional ethnic practices. Next, the research classified occupations encountered, analysed whether intra-generational and inter-generational social mobility occurs and found that Rroma community experiences a dynamic pattern of multi-directional and multi-speed social mobility as well as a distinct process of ethnic transition. Ethnic transition describes the process through which respondents shed ethnic practices and move away from distinct Gypsy ethnic identities towards "symbolic" identities. Thirdly, the research analysed the impact of education on social trajectories and found that contrary to uninformed prejudice, a majority of Rroma tend to hold education in high esteem and that they do benefit socially from it. Far from questioning its relevance or fearing it, formal education is accepted and aspired to by Traditional Gypsies who understand its potential impact upon their living standard. Modem Rroma too, value education though their ideal attainment levels tend to be higher than those of Traditional Gypsies. The gap between abstract preferences and real school participation is maintained less by discrimination alone but by a rational choice evaluation through a cost (including discrimination) benefit analysis. Formal education is essential for Rroma's social mobility though Traditional Gypsies necessitate lesser levels than Modern Rroma who, to compete in the Gadje world, require the same amount of education for comparative occupation levels as other members of the wider community.

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This thesis comprises a critical appraisal and a collection of published works drawn largely from extensive qualitative data generated by a five-year longitudinal study of forty-four Gypsy Traveller students. Gypsy Traveller children’s disengagement and underachievement in the secondary phase of education has exercised educationalists and policy makers for over forty years. Historically, deficit theory associated with an impoverished and disadvantaged nomadic lifestyle prevailed but this is no longer sustainable. The vast majority of Gypsy Travellers in Britain today are housed or settled on established sites and the situation has barely improved. Other ‘pathological’ explanations such as the Traveller community’s determination to preserve a separate identity from the dominant population by defending cultural boundaries have also featured prominently in the literature and in professional discourses. The thesis is grounded in a social constructionist approach, which critically analyses psychosociocultural forces and their impact on relationships and human behaviour. From this analysis, a new perspective is proffered as to why Gypsy Traveller children so often find themselves out of the secondary education system. Social exclusion and cultural dissonance are identified as significant push factors that trigger certain coping responses, some of which are maladaptive

Two modes of singing were evident in narrative performances recorded by Scots travellers: singing set melodies to memorized or re-created texts, and improvising on a variable melody to a memorized or a variable text. In travellers' society both modes are acceptable but the majority of travellers today prefer set melodies. The improvisatory mode was traditional and used by the older travellers born before World War I, five of whom became my informants or Ewan NacColl's, re. Travellers' Songs from England and Scotland (1977). The tradition of narrative improvisation appears to be obsolete with the death of Mrs Martha Johnstone (Perthshire), 1980. But her 108 sung performances, 66 songs and 34 narratives recorded between 1955 and 1978, by four fieldworkers, provide valuable material for the study of strophic variability -- its function in the singer's interpretation of an essential story (Lord, 1960 and Buchan, 1972) in performance. Strophic variability is related to the Danish ballad singers' usage of variable intonations, and the author's musical analysis of the diachronic variants of Martha Johnstone's improvisatory ballads follows Thorkild Knudsen's theory of ballad melody or "melodic idea" (1967, 1976). The majority of travellers' performances, however, do not exhibit such extreme structural variations. Their ballads feature regularity manifested in a "standard strophe." In performance the regularly recurring standard strophe is fluid, composed of musical equivalents or structural options at the level of pitch, figure, motive, phrase or strophe, which the singer may or may not choose to realize. Explanations for the presence or absence of variation or variants (musical equivalents) are discussed, particularly memory failure and uncertainty on the part of the singer. A high frequency of irregular strophes is evident in travellers' narrative songs. It can be shown that irregular strophes are often "fixed" in singers' versions. According to the author's thesis on variation as a process of volition and cognition, such irregular strophes are viewed as intentional and purposeful e.g., for expressing the climax or denouement of a narrative, or for heightening a particular dramatic or narrative episode within the singer's story. Testimonies from singers, their explanations and definitions bear out the truth of the analysis. Fifty-three examples of narrative performances by seven of the author's informants and six of MacColl's are featured in the work; thirty-nine are complete song transcriptions; fourteen are included on an accompanying cassette. Three especial singers, are from different "homeground areas" of the travellers in Scotland, are the subjects of the study - Martha Johnstone (Perthshire), Duncan Williamson (Argyllshire) and Johnnie Whyte (Angus). The work is the result of ten years' fieldwork among the Scots travellers and four years' continuous travelling with one extended family.