O presente trabalho é o produto de minha pesquisa acerca dos aspectos históricos e linguísticos que subjazem o conceito do fonema. Nossa ideia originou-se a partir de dois extratos diferentes escritos pelo linguista russo Roman Jakobson: 1) sobre a gênese do fonema: “A procura pelos constituintes diferenciais discretos mais elementares da linguagem nos faz remontar à doutrina do sphoṭa dos gramáticos do sânscrito e a concepção do στοιχεῖον de Platão, mas o verdadeiro estudo linguístico desses invariantes iniciou-se apenas em 1870” (Jakobson, 1962:467); e 2) acerca dos fundadores da Fonologia: “Os primeiros alicerces da Fonologia foram assentados por Baudouin de Courtenay, Ferdinand de Saussure e seus discípulos” (Jakobson, 1962:232). Desta forma, tentamos realizar uma “reconstrução” desta trajetória histórica e linguística, dos nomes, fatos e teorias que formam o conceito da unidade fonológica no estudo científico da língua. Iniciamos com o estudo da ciência da linguagem na Índia antiga (em particular, o estudo da gramática do sânscrito), seguido pelo estudo do alfabeto grego (incluindo aí os problemas relativos à língua grega, assim como à Gramática e à Filosofia). Finalmente, tentamos fazer “um recorte” preciso do momento na história das ideias linguísticas quando o conceito científico do fonema foi delineado, definido e incorporado à terminologia da epistemologia linguística. Os grandes teóricos da escola incipiente da Linguística Geral, da Fonologia e do fonema, são, como disse Jakobson, o linguista e filólogo suíço Saussure, e o filólogo e foneticista polonês Courtenay; mas a história do fonema não é nada simples. Recentemente, um trabalho meticuloso por parte dos pesquisadores tem resgatado grande parte desta história já há muito esquecida, no que tange as teorias antigas dos gramáticos filósofos hindus e gregos, e os manuscritos de Saussure recentemente publicados, assim como os artigos de Courtenay e seus alunos (entre eles o polonês Mikołaj Kruszewski), escritos que, em sua maioria, permanecem sem tradução ao português. Nossa tarefa, então, foi trazer à luz esta história, seus desenvolvimentos no campo da Linguística em geral, e da Fonologia em particular. Realizamos nossa análise por meio de um cuidadoso estudo do fonema, um conceito no qual vários séculos de história e de ideias linguísticas estão sedimentados. / The present work is the product of my research into the historical and linguistic aspects that underlie the concept of the phoneme. Our main idea originated from two different extracts by the Russian linguist Roman Jakobson: 1) on the genesis of the phoneme: “the search for the ultimate discrete differential constituents of language can be traced back to the sphoṭa doctrine of the Sanskrit grammarians and to Plato’s conception of στοιχεῖον, but the actual linguistic study of these invariants started only in the 1870s” (Jakobson, 1962:467); and 2) on the founders of Phonology: “The first foundations of Phonology were laid by Baudouin de Courtenay, Ferdinand de Saussure and their disciples” (Jakobson, 1962:232). Thus, we attempted a historical and linguistic “reconstruction” of names, facts and theories that comprise the concept of a phonological unit and that of the phonological structure of language. We started with the study of the Science of Language in ancient India (in particular the grammar of Sanskrit), followed by the study of the Greek alphabet (including its implications concerning the Greek language, as well as Grammar and Philosophy). Finally, we attempted a precise “cut”, so to speak, on the moment in the history of Linguistic ideas when the scientific concept of the phoneme was outlined, defined and incorporated into the terminology of modern linguistic epistemology. The great theoreticians of the incipient school of General Linguistics, of Phonology and of the phoneme are, as Jakobson stated, the Swiss linguist and philologist Saussure, and the Polish philologist and phonetician Courtenay; yet the story inside the phoneme is anything but a simple one. Recently, meticulous scholarship has rescued a great part of this long forgotten history, in what concerns the ancient theories of both the Hindu and the Greek grammarian-philosophers, and the unpublished manuscript works of Saussure and the works of Courtenay and his students (among them the Polish professor Mikołaj Kruszewski), works that so far have remained without translation into Portuguese. Our task, then, has been to bring this history to light, its developments in the field of Linguistics in general, and Phonology in particular. We carried out this analysis by means of a careful study of the phoneme, a concept in which several hundred years of history and linguistic ideas have crystallized.

O presente trabalho é o produto de minha pesquisa acerca dos aspectos históricos e linguísticos que subjazem o conceito do fonema. Nossa ideia originou-se a partir de dois extratos diferentes escritos pelo linguista russo Roman Jakobson: 1) sobre a gênese do fonema: “A procura pelos constituintes diferenciais discretos mais elementares da linguagem nos faz remontar à doutrina do sphoṭa dos gramáticos do sânscrito e a concepção do στοιχεῖον de Platão, mas o verdadeiro estudo linguístico desses invariantes iniciou-se apenas em 1870” (Jakobson, 1962:467); e 2) acerca dos fundadores da Fonologia: “Os primeiros alicerces da Fonologia foram assentados por Baudouin de Courtenay, Ferdinand de Saussure e seus discípulos” (Jakobson, 1962:232). Desta forma, tentamos realizar uma “reconstrução” desta trajetória histórica e linguística, dos nomes, fatos e teorias que formam o conceito da unidade fonológica no estudo científico da língua. Iniciamos com o estudo da ciência da linguagem na Índia antiga (em particular, o estudo da gramática do sânscrito), seguido pelo estudo do alfabeto grego (incluindo aí os problemas relativos à língua grega, assim como à Gramática e à Filosofia). Finalmente, tentamos fazer “um recorte” preciso do momento na história das ideias linguísticas quando o conceito científico do fonema foi delineado, definido e incorporado à terminologia da epistemologia linguística. Os grandes teóricos da escola incipiente da Linguística Geral, da Fonologia e do fonema, são, como disse Jakobson, o linguista e filólogo suíço Saussure, e o filólogo e foneticista polonês Courtenay; mas a história do fonema não é nada simples. Recentemente, um trabalho meticuloso por parte dos pesquisadores tem resgatado grande parte desta história já há muito esquecida, no que tange as teorias antigas dos gramáticos filósofos hindus e gregos, e os manuscritos de Saussure recentemente publicados, assim como os artigos de Courtenay e seus alunos (entre eles o polonês Mikołaj Kruszewski), escritos que, em sua maioria, permanecem sem tradução ao português. Nossa tarefa, então, foi trazer à luz esta história, seus desenvolvimentos no campo da Linguística em geral, e da Fonologia em particular. Realizamos nossa análise por meio de um cuidadoso estudo do fonema, um conceito no qual vários séculos de história e de ideias linguísticas estão sedimentados. / The present work is the product of my research into the historical and linguistic aspects that underlie the concept of the phoneme. Our main idea originated from two different extracts by the Russian linguist Roman Jakobson: 1) on the genesis of the phoneme: “the search for the ultimate discrete differential constituents of language can be traced back to the sphoṭa doctrine of the Sanskrit grammarians and to Plato’s conception of στοιχεῖον, but the actual linguistic study of these invariants started only in the 1870s” (Jakobson, 1962:467); and 2) on the founders of Phonology: “The first foundations of Phonology were laid by Baudouin de Courtenay, Ferdinand de Saussure and their disciples” (Jakobson, 1962:232). Thus, we attempted a historical and linguistic “reconstruction” of names, facts and theories that comprise the concept of a phonological unit and that of the phonological structure of language. We started with the study of the Science of Language in ancient India (in particular the grammar of Sanskrit), followed by the study of the Greek alphabet (including its implications concerning the Greek language, as well as Grammar and Philosophy). Finally, we attempted a precise “cut”, so to speak, on the moment in the history of Linguistic ideas when the scientific concept of the phoneme was outlined, defined and incorporated into the terminology of modern linguistic epistemology. The great theoreticians of the incipient school of General Linguistics, of Phonology and of the phoneme are, as Jakobson stated, the Swiss linguist and philologist Saussure, and the Polish philologist and phonetician Courtenay; yet the story inside the phoneme is anything but a simple one. Recently, meticulous scholarship has rescued a great part of this long forgotten history, in what concerns the ancient theories of both the Hindu and the Greek grammarian-philosophers, and the unpublished manuscript works of Saussure and the works of Courtenay and his students (among them the Polish professor Mikołaj Kruszewski), works that so far have remained without translation into Portuguese. Our task, then, has been to bring this history to light, its developments in the field of Linguistics in general, and Phonology in particular. We carried out this analysis by means of a careful study of the phoneme, a concept in which several hundred years of history and linguistic ideas have crystallized.

Doctorat en philosophie et lettres / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

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Over the past thirty years, academic dialogues on the relationships between the sciences and religions have flourished, albeit primarily within Judeo-Christian historical, theological and philosophical contexts. Can a Hindu tradition be brought into this dialogue? The Bhagavata Purana is one of the most well-known sacred texts of India, and biology, Darwinism in particular, has become one of the most spirited areas of the science and religion dialogue in academia, as well as in the popular media. This thesis examines the possibility, scope and foundational topics involved in a dialogue between Vaisnava-Hindu theology as found in the Bhāgavata, and the theoretical, philosophical and theological issues surrounding contemporary biology. To examine the possibility and scope of a Bhāgavata-science dialogue, I focus on the theological, ontological, epistemological and teleological presuppositions that each tradition bring to the study of nature, outlining the similarities and differences in their approaches. I establish the grounds for further discussion through a comparative analysis of terms such as "consciousness," "knowledge" and "goal of knowledge" as they appear in the Bhagavata and noteworthy Darwinian texts. My argument is that although prima facie the two traditions appear different in their philosophical, scientific and theological approaches, there are a number of areas of common interest and parallels, especially in their epistemologies and teleologies. In the case of genuine differences, such as their views on the ontology of consciousness, I demonstrate the possibility of reconciliation. Clarifying the conceptual differences, establishing parallels and demonstrating areas of common interests opens the possibility and widens the scope for further dialogue.

The present diploma thesis deals with the common morphological and phonological features between Sanskrit and Slavic languages. It contains the list of common lexemes in Sanskrit and Slavic languages added at the end of the thesis. The point of departure of this thesis are the theories of comparative linguistics, which are mentioned in the introduction. Morphophonological parallels are researched in the context of the relationships between Indo- Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages, what helps to distinguish common features between the separated language branches: e. g. common features between Baltic languages and Sanskrit or common features between Slavic and Iranian languages. Iranian and Slavic language contact is analysed in the special chapter. The common features between Sanskrit and Slavic languages supposed to be generally the remnants of common Indo-European principles, which are preserved in both language branches. The special chapter is also devoted to the RUKI sound law, which is regarded as one of the most important common feature between Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian languages.

While current scholarship acknowledges the influence of Buddhist ideas on Julio Cortázar’s fiction, critical analysis of this element of his work does not often engage in depth with Buddhist thought. Buddhism is frequently characterised as something mystical or mythical when read in relation to the works of Cortázar. This approach leads to an insufficient reading of the highly important notion of the ‘centro’ in Rayuela (1963), whose symbolism, evoking a dynamic equilibrium, may be more successfully explored with closer reference to Buddhist philosophy. The Argentine author Marcelo Cohen has also engaged with Buddhist ideas in his works; his Buda (1990), a biography of the historical Buddha, testifies to this interest. Again, however, this aspect has not received full attention in critical scholarship. Given the importance of the use of negation in Cohen’s literature, comparing Cohen with Buddhist philosophy can enrich our understanding of many aspects of his works, such as his treatment of relationality. I have chosen to compare both Argentine authors with the Indian Buddhist philosopher Nāgārjuna, who is considered the founder of the Madhyamaka school, which is particularly associated with the theory of ‘emptiness’ (‘śūnyatā’). Nāgārjuna’s philosophy is cited directly in Cortázar’s poem ‘Canción de Gautama’ and Cohen’s Buda and informs a number of these writers’ other texts. The main body of the thesis is divided into three sections. These examine the triadic relation between time, identity and language, with each section focusing more on one of these three aspects in turn. The three chapters and three authors will be drawn together to form a new reading of the role of negation.

Cette thèse propose une étude sur l’Abhinayadarpaṇa, « le Miroir du Geste », de Nandikeśvara, traité sanskrit médiéval traitant de l’art de l’expression au moyen des gestes. Ce texte est aujourd’hui une référence théorique particulièrement populaire dans la pratique du bharatanāṭyam, la danse « classique » du Tamil-Nadu (Sud-Est de l’Inde), notamment depuis le tournant dit « revivaliste » dans les années 1930. Conjuguant les approches philologique et ethnographique, cette étude propose une analyse des différentes formes et modes d’appropriation de ce texte. L’étude et la traduction du texte sanskrit, l’analyse des phénomènes d’intertextualité avec d’autres traités sanskrits et des différentes « éditions-traductions » anglaises, ainsi que la présentation de l’usage actuel de ce texte par les praticiens de bharatanāṭyam (d’après les données d’un terrain d’un an à Chennai et à Pondichéry, trois séjours de 2013 à 2016) permettront, d’une part, d’appréhender le caractère polymorphe et dynamique de ce traité dont les formes reflètent les pratiques autant qu’elles les normalisent, et, d’autre part, de dégager une pratique du texte, de l’Inde ancienne à l’Inde actuelle, prenant la forme de commentaires discursifs et gestuels. / This study focuses on Nandikeśvara’s Abhinayadarpaṇa, « The Mirror of Gesture », a medieval Sanskrit treatise about the art of gestural expression. Today this text is a very popular theoretical reference in the bharatanāṭyam milieu, the classical dance of Tamil Nadu (South-East India), since the so-called 1930s revivalism. Through philological and ethnographic approaches, this study aims at analysing the various forms and ways of appropriation of this text. The study and translation of the Sanskrit text, the analysis of intertextuality with other Sanskrit treatises and of various English « edition-translations », and the study of the contemporary use of the text by bharatanāṭyam practitioners (using original data from one year of fieldwork in Chennai and Pondicherry, 2013 to 2016) will make it possible, on the one hand, to explore the polymorphic and dynamic aspects of this treatise, whose forms both reflect and normalise practices - and, on the other hand, to distinguish a text-practice, from Ancient India to the present day, which takes the shape of a discursive and gestural commentaries.

La thèse présente une typologie raisonnée des personnages féminins qui apparaissent dans un corpus de quatre œuvres littéraires rédigées en sanskrit au Cachemire entre le VIIIe et le XIIe siècles : le Kuṭṭanī-mata de Dāmodaragupta, la Samaya-mātṛkā de Kṣemendra, le Kathā-sarit-sāgara de Somadeva et la Rāja-taraṅgiṇī de Kalhaṇa. Les représentations littéraires donnent à voir un large spectre de comportements et de statuts féminins. Si la conduite de certaines femmes correspond aux attentes des textes normatifs, d’autres sont tout à fait inattendues et atypiques, des aventurières parfois pittoresques déviant parfois franchement de la norme. Entre ces deux extrêmes, les personnages féminins font plus ou moins preuve d’initiative et usent à des degrés divers de leurs marges de manœuvre et de leur pouvoir de décision. Si les auteurs sont des hommes, qui souscrivent à l’essentiel des normes sociales brahmaniques, leur point de vue sur les femmes n’est pourtant pas univoque. Non seulement le traitement des personnages féminins peut varier en fonction des auteurs mais il varie aussi au sein d’une même œuvre en fonction du contexte. La lecture des œuvres du corpus permet de délimiter ce qui, dans les textes normatifs, apparaît comme essentiel concernant le mariage et le rapport entre époux. Elle conduit également à pondérer certaines des assertions des textes normatifs au sujet des femmes, tandis que la lecture croisée des sources permet d’apprécier l’intégration dans les textes normatifs de certaines pratiques que leurs auteurs ont été amenés à prendre en compte. Enfin, la question se pose de savoir dans quelle mesure les belles lettres du Cachemire de l’époque dépeignent la société contemporaine de leur rédaction. La critique des pratiques tantriques notamment dans les œuvres satiriques de Kṣemendra – mais aussi dans la Rāja-taraṅgiṇī – est bien la preuve que la réalité contemporaine trouve sa place dans les œuvres littéraires du corpus. L’étude d’un ensemble d’œuvres dont on sait qu’elles ont été rédigées dans une région et une époque donnée – chose suffisamment rare dans le cas des lettres indiennes pour être appréciée – présente un grand avantage. Elle souligne la différence de traitement des personnages féminins en fonction des auteurs, du type de texte littéraire (satires, recueil de contes, chroniques) et de l’auditoire auquel le texte était destiné, ces différences au sein du corpus ne pouvant s’expliquer par des différences régionales. / This thesis presents an explanatory typology of the female characters who feature in the corpus of four Sanskrit literary works written in Kashmir between the 8th and 12th centuries : Dāmodaragupta’s Kuṭṭanī-mata, Kṣemendra’s Samaya-mātṛkā, Somadeva’s Kathā-sarit-sāgara, and Kalhaṇa’s Rāja-taraṅgiṇī. A large spectrum of female behaviors and status appears here in literary representation. While the behavior of some female characters corresponds to the expectations of the legal texts, that of others can seem surprising and atypical: risk-taking women, sometimes pittoresque, clearly deviate from the norm. Between these two extremes, the female characters are more or less prone to take the initiative and to various degrees to take advantage of whatever space they have to manoeuver in, and to take benefit of whatever decision-making power they might have. While the authors are men who subscribe to the essential core of Brahmanic social norms, their point of view on women is, however, ambiguous. Not only does the treatment of the female characters vary according to the authors, but it varies also within the same work, depending on context. Reading the works of this corpus helps to define what appears as essential concerning marriage and spouse relations in the legal texts. This study also allows for the evaluation of some of the legal texts’ assertions about women. In fact, the comparison of these sources shows how the legal texts integrated certain practices that the authors of these texts had to take into consideration. In the end, one has to ask the question of to what degree the Kashmirian literature of this time described contemporaneous society. The critical view of Tantric practices especially in the satirical works of Kṣemendra, but also in the Rāja-taraṅgiṇī, is indeed proof that contemporary reality has a place in this literature. It is of an immense advantage to study works from a well-defined region and time – something so rare in Indian Studies that it can be easily appreciated. This advantage allows us to emphasize the difference in treatment of female characters among different authors, and among different genres (satires, story collections, chronicles), as well as according to the different audiences, since we know that these differences cannot be explained as being simply regional.