Faced with depleted oil stocks from 2035 onwards, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a strategy of becoming a more knowledge-based economy by indigenously exploiting transferred technologies. However, despite significant investment in university-based technology transfer and incubation facilities, there is little progress in establishing high-growth advanced technology companies outside of the oil sector. The thesis explores the commercialisation of university knowledge in university-based incubators in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and contrasting with arrangements in the UK, to identify the cause of low spinout rates and what can be done. Beginning with a systematic review of literature on innovation and entrepreneurship as it applies to commercialisation, the thesis identifies gaps and areas of controversy in the literature. From previous research an initial conceptual framework is developed to guide data gathering, its presentation and analysis. Using a qualitative method a sample of twenty-four Saudi interviews and eight UK interviews is justified. Significant new data on Saudi incubator policy, processes and outcomes is presented alongside new data from the UK. This is then analysed from an in-case and cross-case perspective and then re-integrated with literature. A revised conceptual framework is presented and conclusions for theory and practice drawn. The thesis adds to the multidisciplinary bodies of knowledge for example by updating Gerschenkron’s (1966) theory of catch-up, challenging the validity of Etzkowitz’s (1983) triple helix theory, and arguing that North’s (1990) neo-institutional theory is ethnocentric. I argue that culture is a major influence on commercialisation in developing countries and consciously changing cultures necessary for Saudi Arabia’s transition from a rentier state. I find little empirical evidence in either the UK or Saudi Arabia for theories (Shane 2004) of academic entrepreneurship. I conclude that major reforms of Saudi universities and commercialisation processes are necessary if the strategy is to contribute significantly towards diversification of the economy.

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) came into being due to a perceived need for international judicial settlement, whereas the World Trade Organisation (WTO) was created for the purpose of specifically promoting international trade by reducing tariffs and other barriers to trade. Alternative structures for each institution are also considered, as is the older dispute settlement process of arbitration, by means of cases. It is a voluntary submission by both parties to a dispute, when they have agreed on the issues, but need external assistance to proceed further. As a type of judicial settlement, it is binding, can permit third party or non-state involvement, and is a precursor of international tribunals. In the WTO, one aim is to use cases to test conceptual points. The specific aspects of dispute settlement including the application of rules and procedures, and implementation and processes, will be discussed. The working procedures of the Appellate Body (AB) will be analysed in detail. Another aim is to compare with the ICJ, wherever possible. Legal concepts such as jurisdiction, judicial aspects of reasoning, the burden of proof, and the standard of proof will be discussed. The Appellate Body’s (AB’s) standard of review of panel recommendations and rulings will be analysed. Compliance and enforcement are compared between the two organisations. Economic and political considerations will also be touched on when relevant to this study. In the ICJ, the application of concepts such as judicial restraint and activism will be assessed, including the degree of inconsistency found in different cases. The implications of the different types of agreements between states that can lead to or have led to the ICJ’s jurisdiction will be examined, and the impacts assessed. The ambiguity involving provisional measures will be studied in detail. The ICJ’s relationship to the UN Security Council will also be assessed. The lack of monitoring or enforcement, and of no stated compliance timeframe are considered. The thesis will end with various future recommendations.

Online communities (OCs) are an important source of electronic-word-of-mouth (e-WOM), but few studies have examined such messages in a Middle Eastern context. This research develops a conceptual framework that can be used as an instrument to guide empirical work in the field of e-WOM in female OCs. Researchers in similar areas may find this work useful as exemplifying a novel approach to the study of e-WOM adoption in different OCs. This study, of e-WOM adoption in two female-only Arabic-language online forums in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, is grounded in three models: the Information Adoption Model, the Information Systems Continuance Model and the Knowledge Contribution Model, because no particular theory or set of theories currently dominates OC research. In particular, researchers are strongly recommended to start building their own theories of e-WOM phenomena, because this area is still young and has grown rapidly in recent years. The research design comprises two phases. The first is a content analysis, which was appropriately used to analyse the online textual conversations, since it offers a deep understanding of the phenomenon in its real context. The purpose of this phase was to identify the main determinants of e-WOM adoption in female OCs in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, from which a conceptual model could be developed. It investigated the characteristics of the messages influencing the adoption of e-WOM. It began with a pilot study, where 90 threads were analyzed, followed by the content analysis of the two cases. A total of 765 threads were analysed in the Kuwaiti case, comprising 6200 messages broken down into 17,832 units of analysis. In the Saudi case, 1168 threads were analyzed, containing 17,320 messages and 31731 units of analysis. In both cases there was a prevalence of emotional features in messages, coded as ‘community bonding’. In the second phase, semi-structured interviews were conducted, with the aim of illuminating the similarities and differences in terms of e-WOM determinants between Kuwaiti and Saudi culture by refining the research model codes and sub-codes. This phase was also intended to answer research questions on the current situation in terms of online role behaviours in female-only online beauty forums in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia; on how online behavioural roles influence females to adopt e-WOM; and on the role in e-WOM adoption of the following demographic variables: nationality, age, marital status, employment, education level, hours spent in the community and length of community membership. Fifty women, comprising 25 members of each of the two communities, were interviewed online to gain more knowledge of the factors that impede or facilitate the adoption of e-WOM. The qualitative results show that argument quality, community bonding and information need fulfilment were all significant in affecting participants’ tendency to adopt e-WOM. This study concludes with specific implications for relevant theories and useful findings at the individual, organizational and societal levels.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Economics / William F. Blankenau / This dissertation consists of three chapters. Chapter one presents a theoretical model using a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) approach to investigate the role of world oil prices in explaining the business cycle in Saudi Arabia. This model incorporates both productivity and oil revenue shocks. The results indicate that productivity shocks are relatively more important to business cycles than oil shocks. However, this model has some unfavorable features that are associated with both investment and labor hours. The second chapter presents a modified theoretical model using DSGE approach to examine the role of world oil prices versus productivity shocks in explaining the business cycles in Saudi Arabia. To overcome the unfavorable features of the baseline model, the alternative model adds friction to the model by incorporating investment portfolio adjustment. Thus, the alternative model produces similar dynamics to that of the baseline model but the unfavorable characteristics are eliminated. Also, this chapter conducts sensitivity analysis. The objective of the third chapter is to empirically investigate how real world oil price and productivity shocks affect output, consumption, investment, labor hours, and trade balance/output ratio for Saudi Arabia. This chapter complements the theoretical model of the previous chapters. In addition, this study builds a foundation for future studies in examining the impact of real world oil price shocks on the economies of key trade partners of Saudi Arabia. The results of the third chapter show that productivity shocks matter more for macroeconomic fluctuations than oil shocks for the Saudis’ primary trade partners. Therefore, fears of oil importing countries appear to be overstated. As a whole, this research is important for the following reasons. First, the empirical model is consistent with the predictions of our theoretical model in that productivity is a driving force of business cycles in Saudi Arabia. Second, the policymakers in Saudi Arabia should be more concerned with increasing productivity through adopting new technologies that increase economic prosperity. Therefore, the policymakers should continue diversifying economic resources and reduce their reliance on oil.

Significant attempts have been made by national governments to provide services and information on the Internet via information and communication technologies. However, the accomplishment of these efforts strongly depends on how the targeted users, such as citizens, trust, use and adopt such services. As a consequence, a common interest in understanding the adoption and diffusion of electronic government has emerged in both developed and developing countries. Several impediments could prevent citizens from adopting e-government services such as trust, which consider as one of the major barriers. Many citizens are reluctant to adopt e-government services due to lack of trust, and this concern are not without merit. Citizens' confidence in government and technology is a salient inducer to the wide distribution of e-government adoption. Several studies that have focused on the adoption of e-government services have suggested that trust is a cornerstone for long-term e-government adoption. Therefore, this study aims to break down the complicated concept of trust to understand the factors that build citizens’ trust and the influence of citizens’ trust on the behavioural intention to use and adopt e-government services in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This study focuses on understanding the impact of trust, trustworthiness and social influence on citizens’ willingness to use and adopt e-government services. In addition, it propose a model of trust that comprised of trustworthiness of government agencies, trust in the Internet, trust propensity, trust in e-government and social influence. To fulfil this aim, a quantitative research approach was employed to explore the role of citizen’s trust in e-government in Saudi Arabia, using a survey. This phase was followed by a qualitative research approach using semi-structured interviews to achieve deep understanding of any outstanding results from the conducted survey. From the data analysis, it is evident that all the exogenous variables—government ability, government benevolence and integrity, trust in Internet, trust propensity and social influence—were found to significantly affect citizens’ trust in e-government services. In addition, citizens' trust in e-government and social influence were found to be significant predictors of citizens' behavioural intentions to use e-government services. This study contributes by providing a conceptual model that is useful for studying citizen’s trust and usage behavioural of e-government services in Saudi Arabia.

This research paper aims to examine how international franchising can be a development tool for SMEs, an initiation tool for start-ups, and a strategic tool for the government and private sector in the tourism industry of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The tourism industry is a relatively new phenomenon in KSA, recognized only after the inception of the Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities (SCTA) in 2000. Since then, SCTA made great efforts and reforms to improve the economic, social, and cultural environment of the sector. However, the tourism in KSA still faces an array of obstacles, mainly related to the prevailing inadequacies of human capital and only a modest supply of services catering specifically for tourist, both in terms of quantity and quality. Therefore, the initiation of tourism industry in KSA necessitates learning from countries that have prior and intensive experience in tourism. International franchising represents a possible means of eliminating a large number of barriers preventing or dissuading people from doing business in general and in the tourism industry in particular, especially through its ability to make up for the lack of business experience and knowledge on the side of ‘newcomers’ in this industry. More specifically, this study aims to research the possibility of adopting international franchising with its proven business models that meet the international standards by the tourism industry in KSA as a systematic solution to its most persisting weaknesses. Three phases of sequential mixed methods were used to examine the potential impact of international franchising on developing tourism investment in KSA. Phase one involved qualitative research through preliminary interviews with officials and experts in the franchising and tourism sectors, to investigate the current situation of the research topic and identify the barriers and drivers of both sectors. Phase two involved quantitative research through follow up to the two questionnaires with owners/managers of franchises (n=104) and tourism businesses (n=475) to validate the initial exploration, and make an intersection between international franchising and tourism, through common questions between the questionnaires. This lead to further exploration in phase three, which examined the actual experience of international franchising in four case studies, mostly in tourism, who had converted from independent businesses to franchisees of international brands. The findings indicate that international franchising can be a development tool for SMEs and an initiation tool for start-ups in the tourism industry. This study provides evidence that international franchising can have a great impact on enhancing the intellectual capital of local businesses, including human capital, relational capital and organizational capital, as well as financial performance. The traditional tourism activities (accommodation, restaurants, cafes and travel agencies) have high potential for successful franchising in KSA. Due to the unpopularity of franchising in some activities, uncertainty appears in non-traditional tourism activities such as entertainment, resorts, training institutes, tourism guidance and tour organisers, and motorway services. The diffusion of international franchising, along with its potential impact on development, is conditional on the issuance of an independent franchise law and the lifting of some barriers related to administration, financial support and marketing in the tourism sector.

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The health care system in Saudi Arabia has faced a variety of problems affecting its services, especially in the management area, for example in coordination, duplication of services, authority and leadership. These problems have resulted in patients having difficulty accessing services, in long waiting lists, in medical malpractice and in dissatisfaction among patients and employees. At fault appears to be the organisational culture in the Saudi public sector. To understand this culture and to be able to change it in a positive way, this study applies the Competing Values Framework (CVF) to health care providers in Saudi Arabia. Since this application goes beyond the original Western context of the CVF, it is important to analyse the national culture of Saudi Arabia. Using a critical application of Hofstede’s framework, it was characterised by high power distance, collectivism, femininity and risk aversion. The organisational culture of the health service and its hospitals reflects these societal characteristics. Application of the CVF revealed a balance between the four types of organisational culture in the Saudi health care provision, in both the current and preferred situations. The findings also revealed that a hierarchy culture had slight prevalence when compared to other types in the current situation, while clan culture was slightly more prevalent in the preferred situation. To improve Saudi health care provision, a balance and a uniform strengthening of the four types of cultures (clan, adhocracy, market and hierarchy) is required. The findings of the research will be of use across Arab countries in a variety of public service settings. In addition, this research makes a considerable addition to a rather sparse stock of empirical studies in the management of culture in the Arab Gulf states.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is dedicated to implementing technology within the country and E-government is one of these technologies. However, although significant investment has been made, there has been little progress in this area. The purpose of this study is to identify the key cultural drivers and barriers that are influencing the progress of e-government, by understanding employees’ perceptions and acceptance of the phenomenon. The aim, therefore, is to identify the major cultural aspects that are currently influencing the adoption and implementation of e-government in the public sector in the KSA, as reflected in the behaviour and attitudes of government employees involved in the e-government service delivery. For the research design framework model I examined and analyzed earlier studies to provide an appropriate framework for e-government adoption in the public sector in the KSA. This framework could be valuable in guiding the policy makers and the government in recognizing the proper requirements on a cultural level for e-government adoption in the public sector. The proposed framework highlights and identifies some of the cultural aspects that could drive and hinder the process of adoption. Furthermore, the research method in this research adopts a qualitative approach by conducting three case studies in three public organizations in the KSA. In-depth interviews were conducted to gather primary data from thirty-two employees. The data collection took around three to four months to complete in the field. The research reveals that culture has a significant influence on employees when dealing with e-government implementation in the public sector. In addition, the research encountered several limitations in that I conducted, a female from Saudi Arabia living and working in a conservative Arab culture, who carried out in-depth interviews with male employees in three public sectors. This resulted in a number of exacting challenges which had to be faced. The value and originality of this research is illustrated in the method I chose to employ. Adopting a qualitative research methodology involved me in conducting in-depth interviews with employees. As a female Arab, it was inevitable that I would have to undergo a difficult and complex journey to gather the required data. The nature of the country’s conservative society played a role in this aspect. However, this is part of the culture and fabric of the country, and culture is the essence of this research. Hence, this research study offers an insight into the experiences I encountered in employing this qualitative research study.

Despite the substantial number of studies and the developments that have been made in the field of leadership studies, organizations all over the world and across diverse sectors are not able to meet today’s business challenges. Leadership accounts for successful implementation of strategies as well as development of human capital, and social and economic growth. Nowadays, the diversity of work environments, projects, culture and social conditions significantly influence leadership practices and therefore must be carefully and urgently considered. The most important aspect of leadership that makes it hard to measure is people. Leadership is about communicating with people, understanding their diverse perspectives, respecting their cultural values, and reflecting their social identity. Over the years, leadership has been studied, defined and many theories on it have been developed, each one providing a critical understanding of the leadership phenomenon. However, the field research is continuing to expand as demand continues to grow. The aim of this research project is to understand the current leadership behaviours that are present within organizations in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) in order to positively influence leadership practices and, overall improve organizations’ performance and productivity. The researcher conducted an in-depth study in which all aspects of the context are examined, including leadership, cultural influence and the organization’s unique context. The adaptation of the grounded theory analytical approach and the use of in-depth interviews allow the researcher to better understand the study’s findings. The generated substantive theory of leadership has been represented and named as “collective leadership in action” and is demonstrated and clarified by the introduction of the conceptual model and the theoretical model. This substantive theory is broken down into three critical categories, namely leadership in action, knowledge management in action, and social influential factors. The relationships between these categories are highly important and have been comprehensively discussed. The main conclusion is the new approach to leadership, which assumes that each individual in this world is powerful beyond measure, and that human capital and individual competences and growth are therefore the greatest aspects of leadership development in Saudi Arabia organizations, with focus on the context and global influence. Future research are encouraged examine the generated substantive theory within different contexts and industries.