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Submitted by Claudinei Pracidelli (cpracide@ipen.br) on 2014-11-10T10:55:54Z No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-11-10T10:55:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / O 90Y tem uma meia-vida de 2,7 dias, decaindo com 99,98% por emissão beta para o estado fundamental do 90Zr. Neste trabalho foram aplicadas duas metodologias para a padronização do 90Y. O método do traçador em um sistema de coincidência de 4πβ-γ, onde foi medido o emissor beta puro, misturado com um emissor de beta-gama, que proporciona a eficiência de detecção beta. Para este método, o radionuclídeo 24Na, que decai com meia-vida de 0,623 dia pela emissão beta, com energia beta máxima de 1393 keV, seguido por dois raios gama, foi usado como traçador. A eficiência foi obtida, selecionando-se o pico de absorção total com energia de 1369 keV no canal gama. Alíquotas conhecidas do traçador, previamente padronizadas pelo método de coincidência 4πβ-γ, foram misturadas com alíquotas conhecidas de 90Y. A atividade do emissor beta puro foi calculada por meio de um sistema de coincidência por software (SCS) usando discriminação eletrônica para alterar a eficiência de beta. O comportamento da curva de extrapolação foi predito por meio do código Esquema, que utiliza a técnica de Monte Carlo. O outro método usado foi o método CIEMAT/NIST desenvolvido para sistemas de contagem de cintilação líquida. Para este método, utilizou-se uma solução padrão de 3H. O sistema 2100TR TRICARB foi usado para as medições, o qual opera em coincidência com duas fotomultiplicadoras; uma fonte externa, colocada perto do sistema de medição foi usada para determinar o parâmetro quenching. O coquetel utilizado foi o Ultima Gold, a variação do fator de quenching foi obtida pelo uso de nitrometano. As amostras radioativas foram preparadas em frascos de vidro com baixa concentração de potássio. As atividades determinadas pelos dois métodos foram comparadas e os resultados obtidos são concordantes dentro das incertezas experimentais. Por meio deste trabalho, foi possível avaliar o desempenho do método CIEMAT/NIST, que apresenta várias vantagens em relação ao método do traçador, entre elas a facilidade para a preparação das fontes, medidas simples e rápidas sem a necessidade de determinar as curvas de extrapolação. / Dissertação (Mestrado em Tecnologia Nuclear) / IPEN/D / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP

L'amélioration de la résolution en énergie des calorimètres hadroniques est adressée dans cette thèse. L'approche envisagée se base sur la technique du dual-readout qui consiste à détecter simultanément les radiations Cherenkov et la scintillation. La comparaison de ces deux signaux permet en effet de compenser les fluctuations observées dans la détection de gerbes hadroniques. Les grenats d'Aluminium et de Lutetium (LuAG), qui sont d'efficaces scintillateurs une fois activés avec des terres rares, peuvent aussi jouer le rôle de radiateur Cherenkov sous leur forme non-dopée. Les deux types de matériaux peuvent alors être assemblés pour former un calorimètre dual-readout performant. Dans l'objectif d'étudier la faisabilité de ce concept, les effets de la concentration en dopant et de l'addition de divers codopants sur le rendement lumineux et les propriétés temporelles ont été étudiés. Nous avons montré le rôle important de la technique de croissance choisie sur la nature et la concentration des défauts structuraux. La géométrie optimale, qui se base sur des monocristaux en forme de fibres, donne l'avantage à la technique de micro-pulling down. Cette technologie ne montre pas de meilleurs résultats que les techniques de Bridgman et de Czochralski mais a été retenue pour des raisons de coût et d'adaptabilité pour une production à grande échelle. L'optimisation des paramètres de croissance a permis la production de fibres monocristallines de LuAG dopées avec du Cérium présentant un rendement lumineux de 8000 photons par MeV et un bon comportement en tant que guide de lumière grâce à une qualité optique bien maitrisée. Des tests avec des faisceaux d'électrons et de pions, en conditions de calorimétrie à haute énergie, permettent désormais d'envisager la production d'un prototype à plus grande échelle / This thesis focuses on the improvement of the energy resolution of hadron calorimeters. The approach is based on dual-readout, which consists in the simultaneous detection of both scintillation and Cherenkov light. The comparison of these two signals allows a compensation of the energy fluctuations, which are inherent to the detection of hadronic showers. Lutetium Aluminium garnets (LuAG), which are efficient scintillators when activated with rare-earth dopants (i.e. Cerium), can also act as Cherenkov radiators when undoped. Both undoped and doped crystals can then be assembled to build an efficient dual-readout calorimeter. With the objective to investigate the feasibility of this concept, the effects of the doping concentration and the use of various co-dopant on the light output and the timing properties of LuAG were studied. The growth method was demonstrated to induce significant differences in the nature and concentration of structural defects. The optimum geometry, which is based on singlecrystals shaped into fibers, favors the micro-pulling down technique. This technology does not outperform Bridgman and Czochralski techniques but was chosen on bases of cost considerations and large scale productions abilities. The optimization of the growth parameters led to the production of single-crystalline fibers of Cerium-doped LuAG with a light output of 8000 photons per MeV and an adequate behavior as light guide due to a well-controlled optical quality. Test with electrons and pions in high energy calorimetry conditions allow to engage a future production of a larger-scale prototype

Le contexte de ce doctorat s’inscrit dans la lutte contre les risques de terrorisme nucléaire et radiologique (acronyme NRBC-E). La détection de ces matières dangereuses, car émettrices de neutrons, s’effectue traditionnellement à l’aide de compteurs proportionnels à Hélium-3. Or, l’annonce de la pénurie de ce gaz depuis plus d’une dizaine d’années pousse à concevoir des détecteurs aussi performants. L’émission neutronique étant toujours accompagnée d’un flux gamma, les détecteurs doivent discriminer ces deux contributions. Les scintillateurs plastiques, polymères radioluminescents, peuvent opérer cette séparation. Celle-ci s’effectue alors sur le déclin de l’impulsion lumineuse. Née en 1968, la théorie de Voltz et Laustriat fournit une explication de la discrimination neutron/gamma dans les scintillateurs organiques (« Pulse Shape Discrimination », PSD). Ainsi, le sujet du doctorat est d’appréhender les phénomènes photophysiques ayant lieu dans ces matériaux, plus particulièrement sous forme plastique, après l’interaction neutron/matière ou gamma/matière mais avant l’émission de photons de scintillation. Nous avons d’abord dressé un état de l’art des scintillateurs plastiques discriminants de 1959, année du premier matériau préparé, jusqu’à aujourd’hui. Nombre de compositions chimiques ont été décrites dans la littérature ; ces travaux mettent en évidence les compositions chimiques permettant la discrimination neutron/gamma. Compte-tenu de l’extrême complexité de modéliser l’interaction rayonnement/matière (énergies de l’ordre du MeV) suivie des transferts photophysiques (de l’ordre de l’eV), nous avons caractérisé des scintillateurs plastiques préparés au laboratoire. Ainsi, nous avons mis en place une chaîne d’acquisition numérique permettant la discrimination neutron/gamma. Nous avons ensuite testé l’influence de paramètres intrinsèquement liés à la nature du matériau : la préparation chimique, le volume et le fluorophore secondaire. Nous avons constaté que la reproductibilité des matériaux plastiques est complexe à obtenir. Du reste, le fluorophore secondaire et sa concentration doivent être soigneusement sélectionnés selon le volume du scintillateur afin d’éviter l’auto-absorption. Grâce à des mesures d’absorption transitoire, nous avons identifié le transfert photophysique conférant un rôle important au fluorophore secondaire. Par ailleurs, nous avons évalué l’influence de critères extrinsèques aux scintillateurs plastiques, plus spécifiquement l’influence d’une forte irradiation (10 kGy), sur les propriétés de discrimination neutron/gamma des matériaux. Enfin, grâce à la plateforme ELYSE (CNRS & Université Paris-Sud), nous avons optiquement simulé une trace neutron dans des scintillateurs liquides et plastiques. Grâce au système de détection offrant une spectrométrie 3D en absorption transitoire et en fluorescence, nous avons élaboré une nouvelle théorie photophysique permettant d’expliquer la formation d’états excités triplets significatifs pour la discrimination neutron/gamma. Les travaux présentés ici contribuent à l’appréhension des phénomènes photophysiques responsables de la discrimination neutron/gamma dans les scintillateurs plastiques. / The context of this PhD lies within the framework of fighting against nuclear and radiological threats (CBRN-E acronym). These hazardous materials can emit neutrons. Neutrons can traditionally be detected thanks to a proportional counter based on Helium-3 gas. However, the last decade announced the shortage of this gas, leading therefore scientists to design new detectors, which are as effective as proportional counters. Neutrons are always emitted with a gamma rays flux. So detectors have to discriminate between these two contributions. Plastic scintillators, which are radioluminescent polymers, can effectively operate this separation. This discrimination between neutrons and gamma rays is made thanks the decay of the light pulse. Born in 1968, Voltz and Laustriat’s theory explains neutron/gamma discrimination in plastic scintillators (also named Pulse Shape Discrimination, PSD). Thus, the subject of this PhD is to understand photophysical phenomena in plastic scintillators, which take place after neutron/matter or gamma/matter interaction but before the emission of scintillation photons. We first provided a state of the art of discriminating plastic scintillators as early as 1959 (first prepared material) until nowadays. Many chemical compositions have been described in the literature. All these works highlight the need to finely select the chemical composition allowing neutron/gamma discrimination. It is extremely hard to model the interaction of radiation with matter (energies up to the MeV range) followed by photophysical transfers (up to the eV range). This way, we characterized lab made plastic scintillators. To do this, we set up a digital detection chain for neutron/gamma discrimination measurements. We then tested the influence of intrinsic parameters to the nature of scintillators: chemical preparation, volume and secondary fluorophore have been particularly studied. We noted that scintillators reproducibility is complex to obtain. Furthermore, the secondary fluorophore and its concentration have to be selected according to the volume of the material in order to avoid self-absorption. Thanks to transient absorption measurements, we identified the photophysical transfer which allocates a significant role to the secondary fluorophore. We then evaluated the influence of extrinsic criteria on neutron/gamma properties of plastic scintillators, and specifically high irradiation doses (10 kGy). Finally, thanks to the ELYSE platform (CNRS & Paris-Sud University), we optically simulated a neutron track in liquid and plastic scintillators. Thanks to the detection system offering a 3D spectrometry in transient absorption and fluorescence, we elaborated a new photophysical theory, which can explain the formation of triplet states in plastic scintillators for neutron/gamma discrimination. All these works presented herein contribute to understand the photophysical phenomena, which are responsible of neutron/gamma discrimination in plastic scintillators.

Luminóforos inorgânicos contendo Terras Raras (TR) apresentam um papel importante como detectores de radiação ionizante, aplicados em diagnósticos médicos por imagem, como radiologia e tomografia. A função dos luminóforos é transformar os fótons da radiação de alta energia absorvidos (raios X ou ?) em fótons de luz visível, promovendo melhor qualidade de imagem e, conseqüentemente menor tempo de exposição do paciente à radiação. Os luminóforos de TR consistem de uma matriz hospedeira onde estão presentes íons de TR como Lu, La, Y ou Gd e de um íon ativador (que emite luz na região visível do espectro) como Eu3+, Tb3+, Tm3+ ou Ce3+, por exemplo. Luminóforos contendo íons Ce3+ como ativador são alvo de várias pesquisas relacionadas com detecção de radiação ionizante, devido às rápidas transições 5 d ? 4 f (tempo de resposta de ~ 10 a 100 ns) e emissão de luz na região do azul ou verde, requisitos esperados para um eficiente luminóforo para tal aplicação. Este trabalho apresenta a preparação de luminóforos de TR, dopados com Ce3+ ou Tm3+, na forma de pó, por diferentes métodos de síntese, como os métodos de combustão e Pechini e também por processo sol-gel. Aluminatos de TR (Lu3Al5O12 e Y3Al5O12) dopados com cério ou túlio foram obtidos pela reação de combustão entre precursores nitrato com uréia ou glicina sob aquecimento, ou pela síntese de polímeros de ácido cítrico com etilenoglicol contendo íons TR e alumínio (método Pechini). Em ambos os métodos os compostos foram obtidos por calcinação a temperaturas baixas quando comparadas às dos métodos convencionais. Silicatos de TR (Gd2SiO5, Lu2SiO5 e Y2SiO5) dopados com cério ou túlio foram preparados pelo método sol-gel convencional, por reação entre tetraetóxisilano (TEOS), etanol, água e nitratos metálicos, sob catálise básica, e por um método sol-gel modificado utilizando um polímero precursor. Neste último procedimento, TEOS, etanol e água reagiram juntamente com um sal orgânico de TR, álcool polivinílico (PVA) e uréia como combustível, produzindo um gel. Posterior calcinação levou à formação do silicato. A caracterização dos compostos foi realizada por análises de difratometria de raios X pelo método do pó (DRX), microscopia de eletrônica de varredura (MEV) ou de transmissão (MET), EDX, excitação e emissão no UV-Vis e tempo de vida de luminescência. Para os aluminatos dopados com cério foram ainda realizados espectros de emissão sob excitação por raios X. Os métodos de síntese utilizados se mostraram eficientes para obtenção de luminóforos na forma de pó nanométrico, com exceção do método sol-gel modificado, pois para algumas amostras observou-se a formação de mistura de fases. Os compostos dopados com cério apresentaram excitação e emissão características desse íon na região do verde ou azul do espectro visível, dependendo da matriz, com tempos de vida menores que 100 ns. Já aqueles dopados com túlio apresentaram emissão característica do íon, na região do azul, porém com tempos de vida da ordem de microssegundos. / Rare Earth (RE) inorganic phosphors play an important role as ionizing radiation detectors when applied to medical imaging techniques like radiology and tomography. These phosphors is to convert the high energy radiation absorbed photons (X or ?-rays) into visible photons, leading to better quality images and reducing the time the patient is exposed to radiation. RE phosphors consist of a host lattice where RE ions such as Lu, La, Y, or Gd are present, as well as activator ions (which emit light in the visible range of the spectrum) such as Eu3+, Tb3+, Tm3+, or Ce3+. Cerium-doped phosphors have been the target of several researches related with ionizing radiation detection due to their 5d - 4 f fast transitions (decay time in the ~ 10 to 100 ns range) and due to the fact that they emit light in the blue or green region of the spectrum, which is required for to the efficient phosphors to be applied in the detection of X or ?-rays. This work presents the synthesis of RE phosphor powders doped with Ce3+ or Tm3+, through different synthetic methods: combustion, Pechini, and sol-gel. RE aluminates (Lu3Al5O12 and Y3Al5O12) doped with Ce or Tm were prepared by combustion reaction between nitrate precursors and urea or glycine under heating. They were also obtained via the synthesis of polymers using citric acid, ethileneglycol, RE3+ and Al3+ ions (Pechini method). In both cases, the compounds were obtained by calcination at lower temperatures than those used inconventional methods. RE silicates (Gd2SiO5, Lu2SiO5 e Y2SiO5) doped with Ce or Tm were synthesized by the conventional sol-gel method using tetraethoxisylane (TEOS), ethanol and water, under basic catalysis, and also by a modified sol-gel route that uses a polymeric precursor. In the latter one, TEOS, ethanol and water were reacted with an organic RE salt, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and urea was used as fuel, thus yielding a gel. After calcination, we observed silicate formation. Characterization of the compounds was performed by X-ray diffractometry (XRD ? powder method), scanning or transmission electron microscopy (SEM or TEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), luminescence spectroscopy in the UV-Vis range and lifetime analyses. For the cerium doped aluminates, emission spectra under X-ray excitation were also obtained. The synthetic methods used here showed to be efficient for the preparation of nanometric phosphor powders except for the modified sol-gel route, because in this case formation of a mixture of phases was observed for some samples. The Ce-doped compounds exhibited excitation and emission features of this ion in either the green or blue region of the visible spectrum, depending on the matrix, with lifetime values lower than 100 ns. However, the Tm-doped compounds displayed the blue emission typical of Tm ions, but the lifetime values were in the range of microseconds.

Résumé : Les performances de détecteurs à scintillation, composés d’un cristal scintillateur couplé à un photodétecteur, dépendent de façon critique de l’efficacité de la collecte et de l’extraction des photons de scintillation du cristal vers le capteur. Dans les systèmes d’imagerie hautement pixellisés (e.g. TEP, TDM), les scintillateurs doivent être arrangés en matrices compactes avec des facteurs de forme défavorables pour le transport des photons, au détriment des performances du détecteur. Le but du projet est d’optimiser les performances de ces détecteurs pixels par l'identification des sources de pertes de lumière liées aux caractéristiques spectrales, spatiales et angulaires des photons de scintillation incidents sur les faces des scintillateurs. De telles informations acquises par simulation Monte Carlo permettent une pondération adéquate pour l'évaluation de gains atteignables par des méthodes de structuration du scintillateur visant à une extraction de lumière améliorée vers le photodétecteur. Un plan factoriel a permis d'évaluer la magnitude de paramètres affectant la collecte de lumière, notamment l'absorption des matériaux adhésifs assurant l'intégrité matricielle des cristaux ainsi que la performance optique de réflecteurs, tous deux ayant un impact considérable sur le rendement lumineux. D'ailleurs, un réflecteur abondamment utilisé en raison de ses performances optiques exceptionnelles a été caractérisé dans des conditions davantage réalistes par rapport à une immersion dans l'air, où sa réflectivité est toujours rapportée. Une importante perte de réflectivité lorsqu'il est inséré au sein de matrices de scintillateurs a été mise en évidence par simulations puis confirmée expérimentalement. Ceci explique donc les hauts taux de diaphonie observés en plus d'ouvrir la voie à des méthodes d'assemblage en matrices limitant ou tirant profit, selon les applications, de cette transparence insoupçonnée. / Abstract : The performance of scintillation detectors, made up of a scintillating crystal coupled to a photodetector, critically depends on the collection and extraction efficiency of scintillation photons from the crystal by the sensor. In highly pixelated imaging systems (e.g. PET, CT), scintillators must be arranged in compact arrays with form factors detrimental to light transport, deteriorating the detector performance. The goal of the study was to optimize the pixelated detectors performance by identifying the light loss sources related to the spectral, spatial and angular characteristics of the scintillation photons impinging on scintillators faces. Such information acquired by Monte Carlo simulations enables adequate weighting for the evaluation of achievable gains through structuring of the scintillators for enhanced light extraction to the photodetector. The magnitude of parameters affecting the light collection in arrays, such as adhesive materials absorption and reflector opacity that both have high impact on light output, was evaluated through a factorial design. A frequently used reflector because of its outstanding optical performance was characterized in more realistic conditions compared to air immersion in which its reflectivity is always reported. An important reflectivity quenching of the reflector in optically bonded scintillator arrays was discovered by simulation and confirmed experimentally. This explains the high light crosstalk measured in pixelated arrays as well as paving the way to assembling methods limiting or taking advantage, depending on the application, of this unsuspected transparency.

D. Tech. Engineering Electrical. / Developes and compare algorithms to restore sequences degraded by the effects of atmospheric turbulence with the focus placed on the removal of heat scintillation.Results in the dissertation were obtained using datasets divided into two categories: real datasets and simulated datasets. The real datasets consist of sequences obtained in the presence of real atmospheric turbulence. These datasets were obtained from the CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) using their Cyclone camera and vary in range from 5km-15km. The simulated sequences were generated using ground truth images/sequences. Both datasets can be further divided into sequences with real-motion and sequences without real motion.

The performance of phosphor screens (or scintillators) used in medical imaging systems are strongly affected by the intrinsic phosphor properties. The present study investigates scintillator radiation detection efficiency and how the produced K-characteristic radiation affects scintillator performance. K-characteristic radiation may either be reabsorbed or it may escape the scintillator. In both cases the imaging performance of the scintillator may be affected resulting either in spatial resolution degradation or in counting efficiency decrease. Scintillator employed in medical imaging detectors may have either one heavy element (e.g. Lu in LSO) or two heavy elements (e.g. Lu and Y in LYSO). In the latter case, further image degradation may result, since K x-rays of the high-Z element can produce additional K-characteristic radiation to the low-Z element. In the present study two scintillators with one heavy element (LSO, YSO) and three with two heavy elements (LYSO, CsI and YTaO4) were investigated. The study was carried out by the extension of a previously developed custom and validated Monte Carlo simulation program. When possible, Monte Carlo results were compared to analytical models. The study was made under conditions used in general x-ray radiography, x-ray mammography, CT and nuclear medicine -ray imaging ( -camera and SPECT). Therefore, a monoenergetic x-ray beam was assumed, varying in the range from 20 up to 160 keV. The respective scintillator thickness was considered to vary from 20 up to 100 mg/cm2. Results showed that K characteristic effect of additional K x-ray photons is negligible on thin phosphor screens, while it is considerably higher in thicker scintillators. In addition, it was found that YSO scintillator is suitable for use in x-ray mammography. On the other hand, LSO, LYSO, CsI and YTaO4 scintillators were found suitable for higher energy imaging applications. / Η απόδοση των φθοριζουσών οθονών (ή σπινθηριστών) που χρησιμοποιούνται σε συστήματα ιατρικής απεικόνισης, επηρεάζεται σε μεγάλο βαθμό από τις ενδογενείς ιδιότητες των σπινθηριστών. Η παρούσα εργασία μελετά την ικανότητα ανίχνευσης των ακτίνων Χ ή γ που έχουν οι σπινθηριστές και πώς η παραγόμενη Κ-χαρακτηριστική ακτινοβολία επηρεάζει την επίδραση του σπινθηριστή. Η Κ-χαρακτηριστική ακτινοβολία μπορεί είτε να απορροφηθεί ξανά μέσα στον σπινθηριστή, είτε να διαφύγει από αυτόν. Στην πρώτη περίπτωση μπορεί να συμβεί υποβάθμιση της χωρικής διακριτικής ικανότητας, ενώ στην δεύτερη υποβάθμιση της μετρητικής ικανότητας του συστήματος. Οι σπινθηριστές που χρησιμοποιούνται σε ανιχνευτές ιατρικής απεικόνισης συνήθως αποτελούνται είτε από ένα βαρύ στοιχείο (π.χ. το Lu στο LSO) είτε από δύο βαρέα στοιχεία (π.χ. το Lu και το Y στο LSO). Ένα στοιχείο χαρακτηρίζεται ως βαρύ όταν έχει ατομικό αριθμό (Ζ) μεγαλύτερο από 30. Στην δεύτερη περίπτωση, μπορεί να συμβεί περαιτέρω υποβάθμιση της διακριτικής ικανότητας της εικόνας. Αυτό συμβαίνει λόγω του γεγονότος ότι τα φωτόνια της Κ-χαρακτηριστικής ακτινοβολίας του βαρέος στοιχείου υψηλότερου ατομικού αριθμού μπορούν να προκαλέσουν την παραγωγή πρόσθετων φωτονίων Κ-χαρακτηριστικής ακτινοβολίας από το βαρύ στοιχείο χαμηλότερου ατομικού αριθμού. Στην παρούσα εργασία μελετήθηκαν δύο σπινθηριστές με ένα βαρύ στοιχείο (LSO, YSO) και τρεις με δύο βαρέα στοιχεία. (LYSO, CsI και YTaO4). Η εργασία πραγματοποιήθηκε κάνοντας επέκταση ενός προγράμματος προσομοίωσης Monte Carlo, το οποίο αναπτύχθηκε στο εργαστήριο και έχει πιστοποιηθεί. Όπου ήταν εφικτό, τα αποτελέσματα του Monte Carlo συγκρίθηκαν με αποτελέσματα που εξήχθηκαν από αναλυτικά-θεωρητικά μοντέλα. Η εργασία αυτή πραγματοποιήθηκε για συνθήκες που χρησιμοποιούνται στην Ακτινοδιαγνωστική, την Μαστογραφία, την Αξονική Τομογραφία και την Πυρηνική Ιατρική (γ-κάμερα και SPECT). Πιο συγκεκριμένα, η ενέργεια της προσπίπτουσας ακτινοβολίας Χ ή γ μεταβαλλόταν από 20 έως 140 keV. Τα πάχη των σπινθηριστών κυμαίνονταν από 20 έως 100 mg/cm2. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ότι το φαινόμενο της Κ-χαρακτηριστικής ακτινοβολίας είναι αμελητέο σε λεπτές οθόνες, ενώ είναι πολύ μεγαλύτερο σε παχιές οθόνες. Επίσης, βρέθηκε ότι ο σπινθηριστής YSO είναι ιδανικός για χρήση στην Μαστογραφία. Από την άλλη πλευρά, οι σπινθηριστές LSO, LYSO, CsI και YTaO4 βρέθηκαν κατάλληλοι για εφαρμογές ιατρικής απεικόνισης υψηλότερων ενεργειών.