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Abstract Stretch of the cardiac muscle activates several physiological processes leading to changes in the function of the muscle. These changes include increase of the contraction force accompanied by changes in the intracellular calcium concentration. This phenomenon is known as Frank-Starling relation of the heart. In addition to this, stretch also influences the membrane voltage of individual myocytes predisposing the cardiac muscle to arrhythmias. In atrial muscle stretch augments the secretion of the atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). Although several cellular components are known to be sensitive to mechanical stimulus the precise mechanisms participating to these stretch-induced changes are not known in detail. Further it is not known if these changes are causally related or if they share a common causal factor. This research was aimed to study the stretch-induced changes in the rat atrium. The possible interactive mechanisms were studied by recording intracellular action potentials, changes in the intracellular calcium concentration, contraction force and ANP secretion during stretch. The plausible mechanosensitive cellular components were incorporated into a mathematical model that was used to further study the mechanisms. The role of intracellular acidosis as a possible modulator of the mechanotransduction was of special interest. In isolated rat left atrium moderate stretch produced by increasing the intra-atrial pressure increased the contraction force in a biphasic manner. The immediate increase of the force was caused by altered properties of the contractile element, but the following slow increase was accompanied by an increase of the Ca2+ transient. These changes were followed by lengthening of the late phase of action potentials and augmented secretion of the ANP. Intensive sustained stretch was also found to induce delayed afterdepolarizations (DADs). Gadolinium (Gd3+), blocker of stretch-activated ion channels reduced the stretch-dependent activation of the contraction and inhibited the stretch-induced DADs. The mathematical model simulated the experimental findings at best when stretch-activated channel (SA-channel) activation and increased troponin-C affinity were used to mimic the stretch. The modelling data suggested that the SA-channel current increases the sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium content in a time dependent manner leading to Ca2+ transient augmentation during systole. Bigger Ca2+ transients induce a depolarizing current during the late phase of the action potential (AP) repolarization via the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger causing the lengthening of the action potentials. A small reduction of the intracellular pH (0.18 units) with 20 mM propionate was found to modulate the stretch-induced changes in the rat atrium. Acidosis leads to an increase in the diastolic [Ca2+]i during stretch, inhibits the stretch-induced changes in action potentials and slows down the contraction development during stretch by inhibiting the fast component of the force increase. These changes in E-C-coupling (excitation-contraction-coupling) were accompanied by a simultaneous augmentation of the ANP secretion. Furthermore, it was shown that contraction force and diastolic [Ca2+]i of the stretched tissue are more sensitive to acidosis than in non-stretched tissue. In conclusion, the stretch-induced changes in rat atrial myocytes are mediated by at least two mechanisms; stretch-activated Ca2+ influx and change in the properties of the contractile element. The action potential changes can be largely explained by modulation of the membrane voltage by intracellular calcium via Na+/Ca2+-exchanger. The co-occurrence of the changes in the [Ca2+]i and ANP secretion suggests that the stretch-induced ANP secretion can be mediated by [Ca2+]i.

This study examined the effects of epinephrine, norepinephrine, AVP and ACh on fluid movement by the lungs of the late-term guinea pig fetus. Catecholamines and AVP are secreted in high amounts by the fetus during delivery, and could be important with respect to fetal lung fluid removal; this event is vital at the time of birth. The lungs were supported in vitro for a duration of three hours, and production rates were measured using a dye-dilution technique. The average resting production rate in terms of ml/kg‧h declined with gestational age (54-67 days gestation; n=171). There was a lesser decline in the average resting production rate in terms of ml/h. The average production rate of untreated preparations in the first hour was 1.60 ± 0.26 ml/kg body weight per hour, and rates did not change significantly during the remaining two hours of experimentation (n=30). This rate is comparable to those reported from chronically catheterized fetal sheep. Treatment was administered during the second hour of experimentation, following an ABA design. Lungs (n=36) were transferred to fresh Krebs-Henseleit saline containing one of the following concentrations of epinephrine: (a) 10‾⁵ M; (b) 10‾⁶ M; (c) 10‾⁷ M; (d) 5 x 10‾⁸ M; (e) 10‾⁸ M; and (f) 10‾⁹ M. With the exception of the top dose, epinephrine treatment caused an immediate reduction in fluid secretion, or fluid reabsorption. Sodium followed the movement of water in all cases. The effect of epinephrine at 10‾⁷ M was maximal, and the threshold dose for epinephrine was calculated at 1.78 x 10‾¹¹ M. Phentolamine and propranolol had no effect in control preparations. However, phentolamine completely blocked the effect of epinephrine, whereas propranolol was ineffective. Isoproterenol had no effect on pulmonary fluid production. Alpha-adrenergic receptors apparently mediate the effect of epinephrine on pulmonary fluid movement in the fetal guinea pig lung. This conclusion is different from that obtained in fetal sheep, in which beta-adrenergic receptors are utilized. A possible synergism between epinephrine and AVP was examined. Lungs (n=12) were transferred to fresh Krebs-Henseleit saline containing either (a) 0.6 mU/ml AVP, or b) 0.6 mU/ml AVP combined with epinephrine at 10‾⁷ M. Treatment with AVP caused a slow, prolonged reduction in fluid production. Treatment with AVP together with epinephrine did not demonstrate synergism. The effect of norepinephrine (NE) was examined. Lungs (n=36) were transferred to fresh Krebs-Henseleit saline containing one of the following concentrations of NE: (a) 1.24 x 10‾⁵ M; (b) 1.24 x 10‾⁶ M; (c) 1.24 x 10‾⁷ M; (d) 5.24 x 10‾⁸ M; (e) 1.24 x 10‾⁸ M; and (f) 1.24 x 10‾⁹ M. In all preparations, treatment with NE resulted in an immediate reduction in fluid production, and reabsorptions were observed at the higher doses. Sodium followed the movement of water in every case. The threshold dose was calculated at 3.16 x 10‾¹⁰ M. Phentolamine blocked the effect of NE, reinforcing the importance of pulmonary alpha-adrenergic receptors in the fetal guinea pig. There was no relationship between age and degree of response with treatment of either epinephrine or NE, but fetuses under 78.0 g did not respond to NE. The effect of ACh was examined. Lungs (n=24) were transferred to fresh Krebs-Henseleit saline containing one of the following concentrations of ACh: (a) 10‾⁴ M; (b) 10‾⁵ M; (c) 10‾⁶ M; and (d) 10‾⁸ M. At the three top doses, immediate and powerful reabsorptions of pulmonary fluid were observed in older fetuses (60 days gestation and above); significant falls were observed in the younger fetuses. This result was unexpected, as it was hypothesized that ACh would stimulate fluid production. The threshold dose for ACh was between 10‾⁶ M and 10‾⁸ M. Phentolamine blocked the effect of ACh. This result suggested that reabsorption is a result of an indirect effect of ACh acting through pulmonary alpha receptors. The results in this study show that epinephrine, NE, AVP and ACh are all important promoters of fetal pulmonary fluid removal in the fetal guinea pig. Pulmonary alpha-adrenergic receptors mediate the effects of epinephrine, NE and ACh (indirectly). The conclusions drawn from this study emphasize the importance of species' comparison in fetal research. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AVP Arginine Vasopressin NE Norepinephrine DOPA dihydroxyphenylalanine PNMT Phenylethanolamine n-methyltransferase ACh Acetylcholine / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

La coqueluche est une maladie respiratoire aiguë, causée par la bactérie à Gram négatif Bordetella pertussis. L’hémagglutinine filamenteuse (FHA) est une adhésine responsable de la colonisation du tractus respiratoire de l’hôte, ainsi qu’un antigène vaccinal important. La FHA est transportée à la surface de la bactérie par une protéine de membrane externe, FhaC, selon la voie de sécrétion à deux partenaires (voie TPS). Le couple FHA/FhaC sert de modèle aux systèmes TPS. FhaC fait également partie de la superfamille de transporteurs TpsB/Omp85 qui regroupe des protéines de la membrane externe des bactéries et de certains organites eucaryotes (dont les chloroplastes et mitochondries). La structure cristallographique de FhaC est la première à avoir été obtenue parmi les protéines de cette superfamille. Le tonneau β de FhaC est composé de 16 brins anti-parallèles, reliés par des boucles extracellulaires ou périplasmiques. Le canal formé par FhaC est obstrué par une hélice amino-terminale (H1) et une boucle de surface conservée dans la superfamille repliée à l’intérieur du tonneau (L6). Le domaine périplasmique de FhaC contient deux domaines « POTRA » (pour Polypeptide Transport Associated) en tandem. Ces domaines sont conservés dans la superfamille et seraient responsables d’interactions protéine-protéine. Mon travail de thèse a consisté à appréhender, à partir de la structure de FhaC, les mécanismes moléculaires de la sécrétion de la FHA. J’ai étudié le rôle d’une tétrade de résidus conservés dans la boucle L6, puis j’ai caractérisé les déterminants d’interaction présents dans les domaines POTRA de FhaC. Nos travaux ont montré que la tétrade conservée VRGY localisée à l’extrémité de L6 est impliquée dans la fonction de FhaC. Les substitutions de l’arginine et de la tyrosine en alanine (FhaC-R450A et FhaC-Y452A) ont montré que l’arginine était essentielle à la sécrétion de la FHA. De plus, la structure cristallographique de FhaC-R450A indique que la substitution ne perturbe pas la position de L6. L’analyse des propriétés du canal de ces deux variants reconstitués en bicouche lipidique montre en revanche une perturbation des canaux de FhaC-Y452A. Les substitutions n’altèrent pas l’étape de reconnaissance de FHA par FhaC. L’arginine serait donc impliquée dans une étape tardive de la sécrétion, alors que la tyrosine semble participer au positionnement de L6 ou à la régulation de sa mobilité au cours de la sécrétion et pourrait stabiliser FhaC « au repos ». J’ai également caractérisé les déterminants d’interaction des deux domaines POTRA de FhaC et montré que des résidus de l’extrémité de POTRA1 sont impliqués dans le recrutement de la FHA, probablement par interaction électrostatique. Deux sites majeurs d’interaction ont été identifiés dans des sillons hydrophobes des POTRA1 et 2, qui seraient compatibles avec l’hypothèse que les deux protéines interagissent par « beta augmentation ». L’étude du couple FHA/FhaC est un modèle pour la voie de sécrétion TPS. Nos résultats indiquent que les motifs structuraux conservés sont impliqués dans la fonction de la protéine et apportent des précisions sur les mécanismes moléculaires de la voie TPS et des transporteurs de la superfamille TpsB/Omp85. / Whooping cough is an acute respiratory disease caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Bordetella pertussis. The filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA) is an adhesin involved in colonization of the host’s respiratory tract, and a major vaccine antigen. FHA is transported to the cell surface by an outer membrane protein, FhaC by the two-partner secretion (TPS) pathway. The FHA/FhaC pair is a model for TPS systems. FhaC belongs to the TpsB/Omp85 superfamily whose members are found in the outer membranes of bacteria and organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria. The crystal structure of FhaC has been the first in this superfamily. The β barrel of FhaC is composed of 16 anti-parallel strands, linked by extracellular loops and periplasmic turns. The FhaC channel is blocked by an amino-terminal helix (H1) and a conserved extracellular loop (L6). The periplasmic domain of FhaC has two POTRA domains (“Polypeptide Transport Associated”) that are conserved in the TpsB/Omp85 superfamily and involved in protein-protein interactions. My PhD work aimed at investigating the molecular mechanisms of FHA secretion based on the FhaC structure. I analyzed the role of a conserved tetrad in the L6 loop, and I also characterized the determinants of interaction with FHA in the POTRA domains of FhaC. Our work has shown that the conserved VRGY tetrad of L6 is involved in FhaC’s function. Substitution of arginine and tyrosine by alanine (FhaC-R450A et FhaC-Y452A) indicated that the arginine residue is essential for FHA secretion. Moreover, the crystal structure of FhaC-R450A showed that the positioning of L6 is similar to that in the wild type protein. Channel analyses of both variants reconstituted in lipid bilayers indicated that the FhaC-Y452A channels are affected. Both substitutions have no effect on the recognition step in the periplasm. The arginine residue is thus most likely involved in a late step of FHA secretion, while the tyrosine residue might participate in the positioning of L6 positioning or the regulation of its mobility in the course of secretion; it could stabilize FhaC in its “resting state”. I also characterized the determinants of interaction with FHA of the POTRA domains of FhaC and showed that residues at the extremity of POTRA1 might be involved in FHA recruitment, probably by electrostatic interactions. Two major sites of interactions were identified in hydrophobic grooves in both POTRA1 and 2, which are in agreement with a model of interaction between the 2 proteins by “beta augmentation”. The FHA/FhaC pair is a model for the TPS pathway. Our results indicate that conserved structural motifs of FhaC are involved in the function of the protein and give new insights into the molecular mechanisms of the TPS pathway and of transporters of the TpsB/Omp85 superfamily.

The aim of this thesis was to study the regulation of proteinase secretion by epithelial cells (E-cells) derived from the epithelial cell rests of Malassez. Since these epithelial cell rests are present only in small numbers in-vivo, E-cells derived from porcine cell rests were cultured according to Brunette et al. (1976) and conditions chosen so that detectable amounts of the proteinases, neutral proteinase and plasminogen activator, could be obtained. The regulation of the secretion of these enzymes was investigated by varying the cell population density, adding E.Coli lipopolysaccharide to the cultures and altering the shape of the E-cells by both chemical and physical means. Cell population density modulated both neutral proteinase and plasminogen activator secretion. Neutral proteinase secretion was highest at low cell population densities and the activity decreased with increasing cell population density. Plasminogen activator secretion followed a similar pattern. Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (E.coli LPS) stimulated both neutral proteinase and plasminogen activator secretion. LPS extracted by the phenol method and LPS extracted by the trichloroacetic acid method caused similar increases in neutral proteinase activity but the increase in plasminogen activator activity was greater when the trichloroacetic acid extracted LPS was used. These findings support the proposal that bacterial LPS in contact with periapical tissues could stimulate the epithelial cell rests into increased production of proteinases, thereby contributing to the degradation of connective tissue associated with dental cyst formation. E-cell shape was altered by physical and chemical means. Addition of cholera toxin and dibutyryl cAMP caused E-cells to flatten. Phorbol myristate acetate, however, caused the cells to retract slightly. Mechanical stretching was applied to the cells to cause cell flattening, and cell rounding was effected by mechanical relaxation. Another method made use of E-cells grown on a substrate with V-shaped grooves which caused the cells to adopt a rounder shape more frequently than cells grown on a flat substrate. In addition, dishes coated with increasing concentrations of poly(HEMA) solution, which altered dish adhesivity to the cell, caused the cells to become less well-spread. In all experiments, a more flattened cell shape correlated with a reduced level of neutral proteinase and plasminogen activator secretion while a more rounded shape correlated with increased amounts of neutral proteinase and plasminogen activator secretion. / Dentistry, Faculty of / Graduate

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) encompass a group of diverse bacterial pathogens that collectively cause hundreds of millions of diarrheal cases annually, mostly in developing countries. As part of its infection strategy, ETEC invades and colonizes small intestinal epithelial cells where it secretes heat-labile and/or heat-stable enterotoxins, inducing diarrhoea. The ability of ETEC to invade human epithelial cells is a hallmark of its pathogenicity and is controlled by a set of plasmid and chromosome encoded virulence factors. They include EtpA, a 170 kDa plasmid encoded autotransporter. During infection, EtpA functions as an adhesin linking flagellin at the tip of ETEC flagella to the host cell surface and allowing ETEC to deposit its toxins. Antibodies targeting either EtpA or the conserved regions of flagellin impair delivery of the heat-labile toxin in vitro, and prevent intestinal colonization of mice following gastrointestinal challenge with ETEC. EtpA is thus critical to the pathogenicity of ETEC. In this study, a truncated version of EtpA (35 kDa) termed N-terminal EtpA69-445 or N-EtpA69-445 was cloned and produced as an N-terminal GST-tagged cytoplasmic fusion protein in E. coli BL21 cells. The protein was purified by affinity chromatography on glutathione agarose beads. However, the yield of the pure protein was poor due to its limited solubility. As an alternative, a 57 kDa truncated version of EtpA (N-EtpA69-607) was produced as a secreted C-terminal His6-tagged fusion protein in E. coli TOP10 cells. The protein was purified to homogeneity by metal affinity chromatography (MAC) using Ni-NTA and ion exchange chromatography (IEC) on a Mono S 10/100 GL column. Biophysical characterization of N-EtpA69-607 using circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy revealed the typical spectrum of a β-helical protein. The in silico modelled structure of the protein confirmed N-EtpA69-607 to be a β-helical protein. CD spectra recorded at increasing temperatures indicated N-EtpA69-607 to be thermally highly stable retaining its fold up to 95°C. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) experiments showed that N-EtpA69-607 is polydisperse in solution forming higher oligomers. Lead crystallization conditions of N- EtpA69-607 were determined but the crystals were too small for X-ray data collection. This study thus represents a significant step towards the characterization of the three dimensional structure of EtpA and understanding its structure-function relationship. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Biochemistry / MSc / Unrestricted

The objective of this thesis was to delineate aspects of the control mechanisms of mammalian pepsinogen secretion. In order to accomplish this goal, a comprehensive study was undertaken which would establish an historical perspective of the subject, validate appropriate methodology and then seek to answer specific questions regarding the physiology and pathophysiology of pepsinogen secretion. More specifically, the objectives of this thesis were: 1. To review the historical background of the subject of pepsinogen in the context of the physiology of digestion with specific emphasis on the work and lives of the two major initial proponents of pepsinogen research (Schwann and Langley). 2. To provide a contemporary overview and evaluation of the current status of pepsinogen pathophysiology. 3. To modify and adapt experimental models necessary for the study of pepsinogen and acid secretion in mammalian gastric mucosa and cells. 4. To establish and validate a pepsinogen assay sensitive and reproducible enough for use in mammalian mucosa! and cellular secretory systems. 5. To delineate the fundamental (second messenger) control mechanisms (cyclic AMP and calcium calmodulin) of pepsinogen secretion in the isolated gastric gland model. 6. To define whether the process of pepsinogen secretion is independent of acid secretion in intact mucosa! preparations. 7. To identify different classes of pharmacological agents which would inhibit pepsinogen secretion and/or release. 8. To identify whether conditions present in critically ill patients liable to mucosal "stress ulceration" might influence the release of pepsinogen.

Although exocytosis is the major mechanism by which cells secrete products into their environment, little is known about the mechanism of this fundamental process. Previous studies on the regulation of luteinizing hormone (LH) exocytosis have used intact cells exclusively. It is not possible, however, to determine the precise requirements for exocytosis in intact cells since the cytosol is not directly accessible. Permeabilization of the plasma membrane allows experimental manipulation of the intracellular milieu while preserving the exocytic apparatus. The diameter of the atoxin pores (2-3 nm) allowed the exchange of small molecules such as ATP while larger cytosolic proteins such as lactate dehydrogenase were retained. Because of the slow exchange of small molecules through a-toxin pores a protocol was developed which combines prolonged pre-equilibration of the permeabilized cells at 0°C before stimulation with strong Ca²⁺ buffering. Under these conditions an increase in the [Ca²⁺]free stimulated a 15-20 fold increase in LH exocytosis (EC₅₀ pCa 5.5). After 12-15 minutes the rate of exocytosis declined and the cells became refractory to Ca²⁺. At resting [Ca²⁺]free (pea 7), cAMP stimulated a rapid, 2 - 3 fold, increase in LH exocytosis. cAMP caused a modest enhancement of Ca²⁺-stimulated LH exocytosis by causing a left shift in the EC₅₀ for Ca²⁺ from pCa 5.6 to pCa 5.9. Activation of protein kinase C (PKC) with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) synergistically enhanced cAMP-stimulated LH exocytosis, an effect which was further augmented by increasing the [Ca²⁺]free· Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) was found to stimulate cAMP production in intact pituitary cells. Since previous studies have shown that GnRH activates PKC and stimulates a rise in cytosolic [Ca²⁺]free, these results suggest that a synergistic interaction of the cAMP, PKC and Ca²⁺ second messenger systems is of importance in the mechanism of GnRH-stimulated LH exocytosis. When permeabilized cells were equilibrated for prolonged periods in the absence of MgATP, Ca²⁺-stimulated LH exocytosis declined. The time course of the decline closely followed the leakage of intracellular ¹⁴C-ATP. Addition of MgATP rapidly restored full Ca²⁺-stimulated LH exocytosis. Ca²⁺-, cAMP-, and PMA-stimulated LH exocytosis were all dependent on millimolar MgATP concentrations (EC₅₀ 1 .5-3 mM). It has been postulated that PKC is a mediator of Ca²⁺- stimulated exocytosis. Several findings in the present study argue against this hypothesis. Firstly, PMA and Ca²⁺ had additive effects on LH exocytosis at all [Ca²⁺]free· Secondly, PMA was able to stimulate further LH release from cells made refractory to high [Ca²⁺]free· Thirdly, the PKC inhibitor staurosporine did not inhibit Ca²⁺-stimulated LH exocytosis under conditions in which it inhibited PMAstimulated exocytosis. Fourthly, in cells desensitized to PMA by prolonged exposure to a high PMA concentrations, Ca²⁺-stimulated LH exocytosis was not inhibited. And finally, Ba²⁺+ was able to stimulate LH exocytosis to a maximal extent similar to Ca²⁺ despite the fact that Ba²⁺+ is an extremely poor activator of PKC. Since Ba²⁺+ is also a poor activator of calmodulin, this latter result implies that calmodulin does not mediate the effect of Ca²⁺. In agreement with this, the calmodulin inhibitor calmidazolium did not inhibit Ca²⁺-stimulated LH exocytosis. Since GTP-binding proteins have been implicated in regulated exocytosis in other cell systems, the effects of guanine nucleotides on LH exocytosis were examined. At resting cytosolic [Ca²⁺]free (pea 7), the GTP analogues GTPyS and GMPPNP stimulated LH exocytosis with similar potencies (EC₅₀ 20-50 μM). Additional experiments indicated that the effects of these GTP analogues could not be explained by activation of either PKC alone or cAMP-dependent protein kinase alone. In the presence of both PMA and cAMP, GMPPNP did not stimulate a further increase in the rate of LH exocytosis, suggesting that the stimulatory actions of guanine nucleotides may be mediated by the combined activation of PKC and generation of cAMP, as a result of activation of signal-transducing G proteins. In contrast, pretreatment of cells with GTPyS at low [Ca²⁺]free markedly inhibited subsequent responses to Ca²⁺, cAMP, PMA, and cAMP plus PMA. This inhibitory effect required lower GTPyS concentrations than the stimulatory effect (IC₅₀ 1-10 μM), and was not observed with GMPPNP. These findings indicate the involvement of a distinct guanine nucleotide-binding protein in exocytosis at a site distal to second messenger generation.