Background: There has been growing interest and research into the construct of self-compassion. Self-compassion has been positively associated with psychological well-being, and negatively associated with a range of psychological difficulties. The origins of self-compassion have been linked to early attachment experiences, with poor attachment relationships proposed to result in an inability to self-soothe and take a compassionate stance towards the self. Whilst research in nonclinical populations provides some initial support for these hypotheses, there is a lack of research conducted in clinical populations. Given a large effect size has been found for the association between self-compassion and psychological difficulties, this suggests it may be an important target for therapeutic change. There is a growing evidence-base for the use of compassion-focused therapies, with research suggesting they are effective in reducing mood symptomology. However, less is known about the impact of these therapies on levels of self-compassion, or whether reductions in mood symptomology occur as a causal effect of increased self-compassion. In addition, other ‘third wave’ therapies may also indirectly increase self-compassion. Aims: The research aims were two-fold. The first aim was to conduct a systematic literature review to evaluate the effectiveness of compassion-focused and mindfulness-based interventions in increasing levels of self-compassion. The second aim was to examine the role of self-compassion and its relationships with attachment and interpersonal problems in adults attending a primary care psychological therapies service. Specifically, self-compassion and interpersonal problems were hypothesised as potential mediators between insecure attachment and anxiety and depression. Method: To address the first research aim, a systematic search was conducted to identify studies that utilised a compassion and/or mindfulness-based intervention with a clinical population, and included self-compassion as an outcome measure. To address the second research aim, a cross-sectional, quantitative study was conducted. Participants (N=74; 60% female, mean age = 40 years) attending a primary care psychological therapies service completed four self-report questionnaires assessing self-compassion, attachment, interpersonal problems and anxiety and depression. Results: The findings of the systematic review suggested that self-compassion can be increased through both compassion-focused and mindfulness-based interventions. However, methodological weaknesses across studies highlighted that further research is needed and definitive conclusions cannot be drawn. The results of the empirical study indicated that low self-compassion, attachment avoidance and high levels of interpersonal problems were all associated with increased emotional distress. Furthermore, self-compassion mediated the relationship between attachment avoidance and emotional distress and anxiety. Interpersonal problems was not a significant mediator. Conclusions: Taken collectively, the findings here suggest that self-compassion may be an important target in psychological therapy. In addition, results of the mediation analysis indicated that low self-compassion can be a pathway to overall emotional distress and anxiety for individuals with attachment avoidance. This provides support for the theory that self-compassion is linked to early attachment experiences.

Background: Previous research has reported positive correlations between perfectionism, anxiety and depression within community adolescent samples. Psychological distress has the potential to develop into adulthood; therefore consideration is required about potential mechanisms that could positively impact on this trajectory. Self-compassion has been shown to be negatively associated with psychopathology and positively related to psychological well-being. It has also been found to be inversely related to maladaptive perfectionism (negative aspects of perfectionism) in adult populations. No previous studies have examined both constructs of perfectionism and self-compassion in an adolescent population and what impact they may have on psychological distress and well-being. Aims: This research had two aims: 1. Conduct a systematic literature review exploring the relationship between perfectionism and anxiety/stress in young people; 2. Establish empirically whether perfectionism and self-compassion have a role in the prediction of psychological distress and psychological well-being in an adolescent population. Method: For the first aim a systematic review of the literature was conducted to identify studies that explored the relationships between perfectionism and anxiety/stress in young people. Fourteen papers were identified which were subsequently subjected to methodological appraisal using quality criteria. To address the second aim an empirical study was conducted. It was a cross-sectional, quantitative design using self-report surveys, in an adolescent population (n=128; 64.1% female, mean age 16.24 years) across schools in Edinburgh. Results: The results of the systematic review suggested that there is a significant relationship between perfectionism and anxiety and/or stress in young people; however, some inconsistent results were found between the perfectionism subtypes and their impact on anxiety. Methodologically, the studies held good internal validity, but external validity was poor meaning that the ability to generalise findings beyond the remit of the studies was questionable. The results of the empirical study demonstrated a significant relationship between perfectionism and self-compassion and a subsequent relationship with psychological distress and psychological well-being in the adolescent population. An interaction effect between perfectionism and self-compassion was also established for some of the variables, with self-compassion playing a particularly significant role in this relationship. Conclusions: Overall, there is evidence to suggest a link between perfectionism and psychopathology in adolescents. The factors of perfectionism and self-compassion demonstrated a significant relationship, with both constructs having an impact on psychological well-being in particular. Self-compassion demonstrated a strong predictive relationship to both psychological distress and psychological well-being. The significant findings regarding self-compassion in particular suggest that it may be a potential strategy for working with young people (either clinically or in academic settings) who experience psychological distress related to perfectionistic tendencies. Further research exploring perfectionism and self-compassion and the link with psychopathology in adolescents is much needed. In particular, studies are required which attempt to focus on this area with alternative designs (non cross-sectional), different methodologies and various clinical and non-clinical adolescent populations.

Shame is a complex emotion and often discussed with reluctance; these feelings are usually incapacitating and unbearable. In this thesis, four studies explored aspects of shame vulnerability and shame management. First, a cross-sectional study (n = 240) was carried out to assess factors contributing to the experience of shame. This study demonstrated that negative self-judgment and submissive coping strategies accounted for a significant variance in shame above and beyond the effects of recall of adverse childhood experiences, and that negative self-judgment fully mediated the relationship between recall of childhood experiences and shame. The second study (n = 140 and n = 415) examined the underlying factor structure of a new measure: the Acceptance of Shame and Embarrassment Scale (ASES). Factor analysis in both samples revealed that the ASES had good internal consistency and construct validity. Thirdly, a cross sectional study (n = 159) considered self-compassion and mindfulness as methods of shame management and demonstrated that mindful and self-compassionate were significantly and negatively correlated with the experience of shame. In addition, this study showed that self-compassion fully mediated the mindfulness-shame relationship. The final experimental study (n = 120) assessed the effect of shame on mind wandering. Participants were assigned to shame, pride, or control conditions, and mind wandering during a subsequent reading task was measured using retrospective and behavioural methods. Inducing feelings of shame did not have a significant effect on mind wandering. Overall, these studies suggested that (a) adverse childhood experiences were significantly associated with negative self-judgment and shame, (b) adopting submissive coping strategies is likely to increase the chance of shame vulnerability, (c) the Acceptance of Shame and Embarrassment Scale had promising psychometric properties for assessing acceptance of shame and embarrassment experiences, (d) self-compassion mediated the relationship between mindfulness and shame, and (e) inducing feelings of shame did not have a significant effect on mind wandering.

Setting and monitoring progress on personal goals has potential advantages for helping people achieve their goals. However, it may also have disadvantages for both goal progress and personal well-being if people start to focus on progress and external outcomes (e.g. academic grades) more than internal processes (e.g. interest in the subject). Self-compassion has been suggested as a trait that may help people cope with set-backs, maintain intrinsic motivation and achieve their goals. It may therefore be particularly helpful in overcoming some of the disadvantages of setting and monitoring personal goals. Self-compassion has previously been theoretically differentiated from self-esteem, with self-esteem seen as more contingent on positive self-judgements and success, suggesting that self-compassion may have additional benefits for maintaining individuals’ intrinsic motivation. The aim of this study was therefore to test whether self-compassion exercises are more helpful than self-esteem exercises in the context of setting and monitoring goals. This was tested using a between group experimental design with two conditions: self-compassion and self-esteem. Ninety-four university students were randomly assigned to one of the conditions and followed a four-week goal setting and monitoring programme in relation to both an academic and social goal. The data showed that both inductions resulted in an increase in state self-compassion and self-esteem. There was no difference between the conditions in achievement of either goal over the four weeks. There was also no difference between conditions in the weekly association between poor progress and negative affect or change in goal commitment and autonomous motivation over the four weeks. However, the self-compassion condition was rated as more pleasant than the self-esteem condition. The results suggest that the self-compassion exercises used may be more acceptable than the self-esteem exercises used but they are not better than the self-esteem exercises for enhancing goal pursuit. The study suggests that further research is needed to distinguish the motivational effects of self-compassion and self-esteem.

As helping professionals, music therapists show compassion to their clients but may lack necessary self-care skills to prevent burnout and promote well-being. Due to a lack of research in this area, this study investigated reported levels of compassion for others, self-compassion, burnout, secondary traumatic stress, and compassion satisfaction among music therapists in relation to age, gender, and years of professional experience. A survey of 575 board certified music therapists in the USA revealed higher levels of compassion for others than self-compassion, low levels of burnout and secondary traumatic stress, and high levels of compassion satisfaction. Burnout strongly negatively correlated with both self-compassion and compassion satisfaction and strongly positively correlated with secondary traumatic stress. A MANCOVA revealed significant differences in compassion for others and compassion satisfaction based on gender, with female participants reporting significantly higher scores for both constructs. Additionally, there was a trend related to self-compassion and compassion levels increasing over time. There were strong associations between compassion and self-compassion with burnout and secondary traumatic stress; therefore, it would benefit music therapists to cultivate compassion practices to lower burnout risk.

Self-compassion is increasingly recognised as beneficial in psychotherapy, but can also be experienced as threatening. Attachment priming has been shown to enhance affiliative behaviours even in those with insecure trait attachment styles, and to decrease arousal and threat sensitivity. The current study investigated (a) associations between self-criticism, self-compassion, fear of self-compassion and trait attachment insecurity, and (b) whether attachment-related security priming could promote state self-compassion and reduce physiological arousal when self-compassion induction was attempted by self-critical individuals. 49 participants with high levels of self-reported self-criticism completed either a 'secure' or a 'neutral' prime before undertaking a loving-kindness meditation. Participants' heart rate and skin conductance levels were collected at baseline and during the priming and meditation; participants also self-rated their levels of state self-criticism, state self-compassion and state attachment security at each of these points. Correlational analyses (Spearman's rho) found positive associations between trait self-criticism and trait attachment insecurity and between trait fear of self-compassion and trait attachment insecurity, although not between low trait self-compassion and trait attachment insecurity. Group and time differences were analysed using a combination of parametric (ANOVA, t-test) and non-parametric tests (Mann-Whitney U-test, Kruskal Wallis, Wilcoxon Signed Rank) as some data were not normally distributed). Attachment priming was shown to significantly enhance state self-compassion and also to significantly increase state attachment security and decrease state attachment avoidance, although not state self-criticism or state attachment anxiety, and to give some reductions in physiological arousal. This benefit, however, did not persist in subsequent exposure to loving-kindness meditation, although individuals not receiving attachment priming also showed some reduction of threat and activation of soothing systems from loving-kindness meditation. These findings suggest that attachment priming and loving-kindness meditation may increase self-compassion for some self-critical people, but there are not necessarily cumulative benefits from combining these practices.

The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) on flow state and self-compassion in musicians while practicing. Specifically, the following research questions were addressed: (1) What effects, if any, will MBSR have on musicians' flow state and self-compassion during individual practice? and (2) What is the relationship between the constructs of flow and self-compassion? A two-group pre-test/post-test experimental design was used to address these research questions. Participants (N = 63) included students enrolled in an ensemble at a large comprehensive university in the Pacific Northwest. Results from a repeated measure ANOVA found non-significant changes in flow and self-compassion. Additionally, analysis from a Pearson’s Correlation found non-significant correlations between flow and self-compassion. Further implications from this study have the potential to aid music teachers with a better understanding of some methods and techniques to help students improve their focus and attention while playing music.

Self-compassion and self-forgiveness appear to have much in common, as both relate to one’s self-regard during challenging circumstances; however, their empirical relationship is largely yet to be explored. The present study examines theoretical and empirical areas of overlap and proposes a theory of their relationship, including its possible impact on health. Self-compassion and self-forgiveness were proposed to have a direct relationship that may be mediated by reduction in rumination, shame, and experiential avoidance. These factors together were also hypothesized to have a positive impact on health functioning. The current study tested these models in a sample of undergraduate students (n = 199). In parallel mediation analysis, selfcompassion and self-forgiveness were related to one another and this association was partially mediated by shame, only. As such, neither rumination nor experiential avoidance were included in subsequent analyses. In serial mediation analyses, self-compassion, shame, and selfforgiveness were found to affect health outcomes in various ways. For psychological distress, the association of self-compassion was partially mediated by shame and self-forgiveness, in an indistinguishable fashion. For mental health status, self-compassion was found to have a significant direct effect, only. For both somatic symptoms (full mediation) and physical health status (indirect only effect), the association of self-compassion operated through self-forgiveness both alone and linked with shame. As these two emerging areas in the psychological literature continue to mature, researchers should prioritize both integration between and nuances within these constructs in order to develop a more complete understanding of self-compassion, selfforgiveness, and their implications for health.

It has been hypothesized that negative emotions, left unresolved, contribute to feelings of burnout experienced by teachers. Self-compassion offers a kind, mindful way of approaching difficult emotions. The purpose of this study is to explore how teachers experience self-compassion by qualitative means. In semi-structured interviews, four elementary school teachers shared critical incidents of self-doubt or disappointment in their teaching. They also completed Neff's (2003a) Self Compassion Survey. Through intra-case and cross case analysis the findings revealed how teachers' lived experiences include episodes of conflict, reflection, resolution, and self-compassion, but in differing orders. Also, participants experienced self-compassion in ways that align with previous work on self-compassion, however an additional element of support seeking emerged. This study provided a context to understand the common ways in which self-compassion was lived out in the classroom while highlighting the differences in participants' experiences. This additional insight into the lived experience of the teachers adds to the body of knowledge regarding emotionality in the classroom and positive ways that teachers can and do regulate emotion through self-compassion. Additionally, participants' drive to seek support from others exposed a social side of self-compassion that Neff's (2003a) definition or a simple dictionary definition did not include.

This study examined the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) using secondary data drawn from 20 samples (N = 11,685)—7 English and 13 non-English—including 10 community, 6 student, 1 mixed community/student, 1 meditator, and 2 clinical samples. Self-compassion is theorized to represent a system with 6 constituent components: self-kindness, common humanity, mindfulness and reduced self-judgment, isolation and overidentification. There has been controversy as to whether a total score on the SCS or if separate scores representing compassionate versus uncompassionate self-responding should be used. The current study examined the factor structure of the SCS using confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) to examine 5 distinct models: 1-factor, 2-factor correlated, 6-factor correlated, single-bifactor (1 general self-compassion factor and 6 group factors), and 2-bifactor models (2 correlated general factors each with 3 group factors representing compassionate or uncompassionate self-responding). Results indicated that a 1- and 2-factor solution to the SCS had inadequate fit in every sample examined using both CFA and ESEM, whereas fit was excellent using ESEM for the 6-factor correlated, single-bifactor and correlated 2-bifactor models. However, factor loadings for the correlated 2-bifactor models indicated that 2 separate factors were not well specified. A general factor explained 95% of the reliable item variance in the single-bifactor model. Results support use of the SCS to examine 6 subscale scores (representing the constituent components of self-compassion) or a total score (representing overall self-compassion), but not separate scores representing compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding.