The current study had three main objectives: to examine the relation between trait and state self-objectification and various eating pathology, including restricted eating; to examine the role of general and specific feminist attitudes on body dissatisfaction and trait disordered eating; and to merge two empirically supported models of eating disorders. Using a quasi-experimental research design with an elaborate cover story, one hundred and three women completed a variety of baseline measures and were assigned to one of two state self-objectifying conditions (swimsuit vs. sweater) where body image and body shame were measured at post. Additionally, following the manipulation, participants caloric intake during a snack break was measured. Results indicated that trait self objectification was associated with disordered eating symptomatology and analyses found an effect of condition on body shame, and that this effect was moderated by trait self-objectification. These results were not documented for caloric intake and body dissatisfaction, likely due to time of assessment of these variables. Also, results indicate that objectification theory and the dual pathways model merge well and that in the dual pathway, body shame may be a component of body dissatisfaction. Finally, feminist attitudes were also associated with body dissatisfaction but not with disordered eating symptoms. Implications for clinical work and future research are discussed.

Background: Objectification theory considers how gender and culture intersect to position women at a greater risk of developing eating disorders, depression, and sexual dysfunction. Self-objectification is defined as the internalization of a third person perspective to view one’s own body, which then leads to mental health consequences of anxiety, body shame, insensitivity to internal drives, and decreased peak motivational states. Body surveillance, the habitual and constant monitoring of the body, denotes the behavioral manifestation of self-objectification. Altogether, the accumulation of objectifying experiences and mental health consequences heighten women’s risks of developing the aforementioned mental disorders. Rationale: Extant experimental and correlational research supports objectification theory, in particular regarding eating disorders and depression. Research into the effects of social media on mental health is a relatively new frontier, thus gaps exist in the current body of literature. This study endeavored to contribute to the existing research base by employing qualitative methods to impart women’s personal descriptions of the experience of self-objectification and its proposed consequences in relation to social media use. Purpose of the Study: The purpose of the study was to explore how women’s social media consumption contributes to self-objectification, body surveillance, appearance comparison, body shame, and appearance-based self-worth. Also, the study sought to understand if women perceived themselves differently when they were not using social media platforms. Methods: Fifteen women completed the Social Media Use and Activities Questionnaire and the in-depth, semi-structured interview. The questionnaire assessed women’s active social media accounts, frequency of social media use, and social media behaviors. The interview protocol contained questions designed to extract explanations of constructs from objectification theory such as self-objectification, body surveillance, and body shame. A multilevel thematic data analysis was performed. Results: All of the individuals interviewed were heavy social media users based on the frequency of use (66.7% visit platforms several times daily), as well as the number of accounts operated (minimum of 4). Indicative of self-objectification and body surveillance, women emphasized the importance of how their physical appearance and body attributes are portrayed on social media sites. Also consistent with the definition of self-objectification, women expressed concerns about perceptions, reactions, and disapproval from others on social media regarding their physical appearance. Three additional modalities of body surveillance surfaced including: (1) using filters to enhance or modify the appearance of skin in pictures; (2) posing to accentuate facial features, hairstyles, and body attributes; and (3) women’s personal criteria regarding uploading and “tagging” of appearance-based pictures shared on social media. Findings strongly suggest women compare their physical appearances, features, and bodies to other women. Beauty ideals are determined by evaluating the number of individuals associated with other women’s social media accounts, as well as the distribution of ‘likes’ and positive comments written by people on their appearance-focused content. Five women recollected comparing their appearances and bodies to others, engaging in body surveillance, and feeling as if their own body and appearance failed to comply with beauty ideals, which then led to the experience of feeling body shame. Low self-esteem, depression, disordered eating, compulsive exercise, or bulimia nervosa were cited as reasons for deletion, temporary deactivation, or taking breaks from social media. Refraining from using social media was associated with feeling less pressured, engaging in less comparisons overall, being more mindful of the present moment, and relaxing standards for personal appearances. Conclusions: This study generated contextually rich, in-depth descriptions which illustrated women’s experiences with self-objectification, body surveillance, appearance comparisons, body shame, and appearance-based self-worth in the virtual world of social media. Based on results from this study, objectification theory is clearly applicable to women’s social media use and there is definitive need for future research to address the effects of social media consumption on mental health, particularly among younger generations. Meanwhile, primary prevention initiatives should educate people about the process of self-objectification and its associated consequences, as well as teach resistance strategies. Learning how to deconstruct media content, critically analyze others' online portrayals, and build self-esteem and self-worth may impede self-objectification and its negative mental health effects. Furthermore, public health campaigns should build upon the momentum of the body positivity movement. Known to young women as “BoPo,” this movement encourages women to see themselves as more than their bodies, inspires self-acceptance, and empowers them to be unapologetic and celebrate their body in its current form without adhering to societal beauty norms. These messages are instrumental to dismantling beauty ideals, exhibiting inclusivity of all body types, and mitigating the effects of sexual objectification of the female body.

Self-objectification is the process by which women take on a third-person perspective in evaluating their physical appearance and sexual attributes. Objectification theory states that self-objectification may lead to negative mental health outcomes in women; a growing body of cross-sectional and experimental research supports the connection between self-objectification and the experience of shame, disordered eating, depression, and sexual dysfunction. This study sought to evaluate an intervention designed to reduce self-objectification behaviors and beliefs in order to prevent the development of disordered eating, depression, and sexual dysfunction. An efficacious prevention program using cognitive dissonance induction was adapted to target self-objectification. The efficacy of the self-objectification dissonance intervention was evaluated in comparison to an expressive writing control condition. The self-objectification intervention was also compared to an existing empirically supported cognitive dissonance intervention targeting beliefs regarding the thin-ideal to determine whether or not this intervention provided added benefits in reducing risk factors for disordered eating and depression. A sample of 119 undergraduate females was recruited to participate in the study. Participants were randomized to one of three conditions: the self-objectification dissonance intervention, the thin-ideal dissonance intervention, or the expressive writing control group. All participants completed a baseline assessment and two intervention sessions over a three week period. One month following the completion of the second intervention session, participants were asked to complete a follow up assessment. Change in target outcome variables from baseline to post-intervention were evaluated using hierarchical linear models. Maintenance of treatment outcomes from post-intervention to 1 month follow up was evaluated using mixed factor analysis of variance. Results indicated that significant changes in outcome variables (body shame, disordered eating, body satisfaction, depression symptoms, and sexual self-consciousness) and mediating variables (self-surveillance, self-objectification, thin-ideal internalization) were associated with all three groups. The self-objectification dissonance intervention was associated with a greater reduction in self-surveillance compared to the control group but not with the thin-ideal dissonance intervention. For all groups, there were no significant changes in outcome and mediating variables from post-intervention to 1 month follow up. Participants in the self-objectification dissonance intervention, though, did continue to experience a decrease in self-surveillance over the one month follow up period compared to the thin-ideal dissonance group. Overall, results did not support that a self-objectification dissonance intervention is associated with significant reductions in eating disorder and depression risk factors above and beyond a general expressive writing task and existing intervention programs. These findings suggest that there is limited utility in specifically targeting objectification processes in prevention programs. Implications of study findings for future eating disorder and mental health prevention program designs are discussed.

No description available.

A cross-sectional and longitudinal examination of thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification was conducted within the context of an eating disorder prevention program. The sample consisted of 177 undergraduate women enrolled in a sorority between the ages of 18 and 22 who participated in a dissonance-based eating disorder prevention program. Participants completed self-report assessments at baseline, post-intervention, 5-month, and 1-year follow-up. Measures included the Ideal-Body Stereotype Scale-Revised, Self-Objectification Questionnaire, Body Shape Questionnaire, and Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire. A cross-sectional path analysis indicated that thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification predict each other and both predict body dissatisfaction, which in turn, predicts eating disorder symptoms. A longitudinal examination of the prevention program indicated that participants showed significant reductions in thin-ideal internalization, self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorder symptoms after participating in a cognitive dissonance eating disorder prevention program. Significant reductions of all symptoms were maintained at 1-year follow-up, with the exception of self-objectification, which had a significant reduction up to the 5-month assessment. A longitudinal path analysis indicated that post-intervention thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification predicted body dissatisfaction at 5-month follow-up assessments which in turn predicted eating disorder symptoms at this same time point. This model was replicated for 1-year follow-up body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptoms with the exception of the direct path from self-objectification to body dissatisfaction. Assessment of temporal sequence of change between self-objectification and thin-ideal internalization revealed that neither variable significantly predicted meaningful change in the other variable. Finally, individuals who showed meaningful change in self-objectification before showing meaningful reduction in thin-ideal internalization from baseline to post-intervention assessments had greater reductions in eating disorder symptoms 1-year following the intervention. Collectively, these results suggest that eating disorder prevention programs should focus on targeting both thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification simultaneously to increase further the reduction of eating disorder symptoms.

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between identification with feminist beliefs and sexual assertiveness, by examining three potential mediators of that relationship: self-objectification, empowered entitlement, and self-silencing. Cross-sectional survey data were collected via online survey from 188 women. Results from correlational analyses indicated that active commitment to feminist beliefs was significantly related to lower levels of self-objectification and self-silencing and higher levels of empowered entitlement, but was not related to sexual assertiveness. Identification with nonfeminist beliefs (passive acceptance of sexism) was significantly related to higher levels of self-objectification and self-silencing and decreased empowered entitlement, as well as lower levels of sexual assertiveness. Baron and Kenny's (1986) regression approach was used to explore potential mediators of the relationship between identification with nonfeminist beliefs and sexual assertiveness. In individual regression analyses, self-silencing fully mediated the relationship between identification with nonfeminist beliefs and sexual assertiveness. Regression analyses examining empowered entitlement as a mediator approached significance and analyses examining self-objectification as mediator were non-significant. An integrative analysis utilizing Preacher and Hayes' (2008) method for evaluating indirect effects in multiple mediator models was used to further explore the impact of all three mediator variables and two covariates (age and education level) on the relationship between nonfeminist beliefs and sexual assertiveness. The overall model accounted for a significant portion of the variance in sexual assertiveness and the total indirect effect of nonfeminist beliefs on sexual assertiveness through the set of mediators was significant, whereas the direct effect of nonfeminist beliefs on sexual assertiveness was not significant, indicating that, after controlling for covariates, the set of three mediators together (self-objectification, empowered entitlement, and self-silencing) fully mediated the relationship between nonfeminist beliefs and sexual assertiveness. However, self-silencing appeared to contribute the only unique significant mediation in the model, accounting for approximately 84% of the total indirect effect. Unique indirect effects for self-objectification and empowered entitlement were not significant. Implications for understanding the relationship between identification with nonfeminist beliefs and sexual assertiveness and directions for future research are discussed.

This study is an investigation of how exposure to different media content influences self-objectification, body image, and rape myths acceptance (RMA) in female college students. The purpose of this study was to further explore the effects of immediate media exposure on body image, self-objectification, and RMA, as well as address the gap in the literature regarding the relationship between these variables (Dakanalis et al., 2015; Fox et al., 2015). One hundred and one students that identified as female were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions using a partially blind design. The students watched a short video pertaining to the condition they were assigned (i.e. sexualized content, consent content, control content) and then completed a survey, which included measures of self-objectification, negative body image, positive body image, rape myths acceptance, and demographic variables. Results indicate here was no difference between self-objectification, body image, and RMA scores among participants that were assigned to different experimental conditions. Body image was found to be directly related to RMA, and there was a difference in RMA scores among participants that remembered the university training and those who did not. The present study’s finding expands the knowledge of body image and RMA, and supports the need for interventions targeting attitudes and beliefs regarding rape and consent in college female students. Key words: media, self-objectification, body image, rape myths acceptance, college students.

The ultimate objective of this study was to establish whether female celebrities portray the beauty ideal and have influence over young females today. The literature review presents an analysis of feminism, beauty ideals, self-­‐ objectification, and the influence of media and celebrities, in an attempt to establish whether celebrity images are of a ‘self-­‐made’ hypersexual nature and whether these images influence young females’ self-­‐concept and role in society. The literature was further triangulated with a combination of primary and secondary data. Images of females within the famous Kardashian/Jenner family were studied in an attempt to understand how female celebrities portray themselves today. Furthermore, a focus group was conducted in an attempt to understand whether female youths are to some extent influenced by female celebrities. Through the research conducted it was evident that female role stereotypes still prevail in contemporary media. Furthermore, two themes prevailed throughout the study, which was that women can use their bodies for profit and as a means of power, and the conflicting nature of femininity versus feminism today. / Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / zkgibs2014 / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / MBA / Unrestricted

This study examined the potentially differing emotional consequences of sexual versus non-sexual traumas in both a student and a community residing treatment seeking sample of women. The extent to which a trauma survivor considers the traumatic event central to her identity (CES) was examined as a potential mediator between traumatic events and PTSD. Additionally, the extent to which a women views herself and her body as a sexual object, to be valued based on her appearance and sexual usefulness to others (sexual self-objectification: OBCS), was examined as a potential mediator between traumatic event and event centrality. Study results showed survivors of sexual assault reported greater CES and PTSD symptoms (PCL-S) than non-sexual trauma survivors in the student population. Mediation results showed sexual self-objectification (OBCS-Shame) significantly mediated the relationship between trauma type and CES, and CES significantly mediated the relationship between type of trauma and PTSD symptoms in the student population only. Data from the community sample did not support these conclusions as women from this sample reported higher PCL-S, CES, and OBCS-Shame scores across categories of trauma.

No description available.