Les mécanismes de détermination génétique du sexe, qui requièrent la présence de régions chromosomiques non recombinantes ou bien de chromosomes sexuels, ont émergé de manière indépendante et répétée au sein de plusieurs lignées d'eucaryotes. La plupart des connaissances acquises dans ce domaine portent sur un nombre limité de groupes d'eucaryotes. La disponibilité d'une espèce modèle pour le groupe des algues brunes, Ectocarpus siliculosus, dont le génome a été séquencé, permet de disposer des outils nécessaires pour étudier ces mécanismes au sein d'une lignée phylogénétiquement éloignée des modèles classiquement étudiés. L'un des premiers défis a été d'identifier les chromosomes sexuels dans le génome d'E. siliculosus et de réaliser l'analyse comparative de ces structures. Par la suite, l'analyse de l'expression des gènes entre individus mâles et femelles à différents stades du cycle de vie a permis d'identifier les gènes différentiellement exprimés, de caractériser leurs fonctions et d'analyser leur évolution moléculaire. Les nombreuses données générées afin de réaliser ces différentes analyses ont permis de proposer une nouvelle version de l'assemblage du génome et de l'annotation structurale et fonctionnelle de l'ensemble des gènes codants et non-codants d'E. siliculosus. Ces différents travaux ont permis d'apporter une importante contribution sur les connaissances dans le domaine de l'analyse fonctionnelle et évolutive du déterminisme sexuel chez les algues brunes ainsi qu'une importante actualisation des ressources génomiques du modèle Ectocarpus. / Genetically determined sex determination mechanisms, which are controlled by non-recombinant chromosome regions or sex chromosomes, have emerged independently and repeatedly across several eukaryotic lineages. Most of the knowledge acquired in this area has been obtained for a limited number of eukaryotic groups. The availability of a model organism for the brown algae, Ectocarpus, whose genome has been sequenced, allows the development of tools to study these mechanisms in a lineage that is phylogenetically distant from classically studied models. One of the first challenges was to identify the sex chromosomes in Ectocarpus and to carry out a comparative analysis of these genomic structures. Analysis of gene expression in males and females at different stages of the life cycle then allowed the identification of differentially expressed genes. The functions and molecular evolution of these sex-biased genes was then studied. The large amount of data generated during the course of these analyses allowed the establishment of a new version of the genome assembly and refined structural and functional annotation of both coding and non-coding genes in Ectocarpus. This work helped made a significant contribution to knowledge in the field of functional and evolutionary analysis of sex determination in brown algae and a significantly updated the genomic resources available for the model organism Ectocarpus.

<p>Chicken and Japanese quail are commonly used models in developmental and sex specific neuroendocrine research. There is relatively little known about the mechanisms behind their sex specific brain development, especially regarding the impact of the sex chromosomes (male: ZZ, female ZW) in relation to gonadal hormones. This thesis explores several aspects of these processes. Gene expression analysis with cDNA and Affymetrix arrays on brain tissue from both pre-gonadal embryos and embryos with differentiated gonads indicate a strong sex chromosomal presence in sexual dimorphic somatic tissue development in both chicken and Japanese quail. This sex chromosome pattern seems to remain in adult brain tissue. The data demonstrates that chicken males exhibit a significant level of Z-gene dosage compared to females in both somatic and germ line derived embryonic tissues. Several avian sex determination gene candidates (MHM non-coding RNA, DMRT1, HINTW, and HINTZ) were analyzed by real-time PCR. DMRT1 is dosage compensated in male brain tissue, in contrast to its reported gene dosage in male gonads. Early embryonic ethinylestradiol (EE2) exposure did not affect male or female neural gene expression patterns during later development. A peptidomics analysis on quail embryonic day 12 (ed12) and ed17 diencephalon by LC-MS identified over 60 endogenous peptides and analyzed the expression patterns for 38 of them with regard to age, sex and early EE2 exposure. There was a general upregulation between ed12 and ed17, but no clear sex effects were detected. Multivariate analysis indicates that EE2 exposed individuals differ from control individuals in a gender independent manner, and that Gonadotropin-inhibiting hormone related peptide 2 (GnIH-RP2) is a candidate for EE2 induced peptidomic alterations in male embryonic brain.</p>

Chicken and Japanese quail are commonly used models in developmental and sex specific neuroendocrine research. There is relatively little known about the mechanisms behind their sex specific brain development, especially regarding the impact of the sex chromosomes (male: ZZ, female ZW) in relation to gonadal hormones. This thesis explores several aspects of these processes. Gene expression analysis with cDNA and Affymetrix arrays on brain tissue from both pre-gonadal embryos and embryos with differentiated gonads indicate a strong sex chromosomal presence in sexual dimorphic somatic tissue development in both chicken and Japanese quail. This sex chromosome pattern seems to remain in adult brain tissue. The data demonstrates that chicken males exhibit a significant level of Z-gene dosage compared to females in both somatic and germ line derived embryonic tissues. Several avian sex determination gene candidates (MHM non-coding RNA, DMRT1, HINTW, and HINTZ) were analyzed by real-time PCR. DMRT1 is dosage compensated in male brain tissue, in contrast to its reported gene dosage in male gonads. Early embryonic ethinylestradiol (EE2) exposure did not affect male or female neural gene expression patterns during later development. A peptidomics analysis on quail embryonic day 12 (ed12) and ed17 diencephalon by LC-MS identified over 60 endogenous peptides and analyzed the expression patterns for 38 of them with regard to age, sex and early EE2 exposure. There was a general upregulation between ed12 and ed17, but no clear sex effects were detected. Multivariate analysis indicates that EE2 exposed individuals differ from control individuals in a gender independent manner, and that Gonadotropin-inhibiting hormone related peptide 2 (GnIH-RP2) is a candidate for EE2 induced peptidomic alterations in male embryonic brain.

<p>The gonad is a unique primordial organ that retains the ability to adopt one of two morphological fates through much of mammalian embryonic development. Previous work in our lab found that dimorphic vascular remodeling was one of the earliest steps during sex-specific morphogenesis. In particular, vessels in XY gonads display highly ordered behavior that coincides with testis cord formation. It was unknown how the vasculature may influence testis cord morphogenesis and, if so, how this was mechanistically related to sex determination. The work in this thesis addresses a single over-arching hypothesis: Male-specific vascular remodeling is required for testis morphogenesis and orchestrates differentiation of the XY gonad. </p><p>To address this question we have modified and developed techniques that allow us to isolate aspects of vascular behavior, gene expression, and endothelial influence on surrounding cells. In particular, the application of live imaging was instrumental to understanding the behavior of various gonadal cell-types in relation to remodeling vessels. It is difficult to grasp the complexity of an organ without understanding the dynamics of its constituents. A critical aim of my work was to identify specific inhibitors of the vasculature that do not affect the early stages of sex determination. Combining inhibitors, live imaging, cell sorting, qRT-PCR, mouse models, and whole organ culture has led to a far richer understanding of how the vasculature behaves and the cell-types that mediate its influence on organ morphogenesis. The beauty of our system is that we do not have to settle for a snapshot of the fate of cells in vivo, but can document their journeys and their acquaintances along the way. </p><p>Vascular migration is required for testis cord morphogenesis. Specific inhibitors revealed that in the absence of vessels, testis cords do not form. The work below shows that vessels establish a feedback loop with mesenchymal cells that results in both endothelial migration and subsequent mesenchymal proliferation. Interstitial control of testis morphogenesis is a new model within the field. The mechanisms regulating this process include Vegf mediated vascular remodeling, Pdgf induced proliferation, and Wnt repression of coordinated endothelial-mesenchymal dynamics. Our work also suggests that vascular patterning underlies testis patterning and, again, is mediated by signals within the interstitial space not within testis cords themselves. </p><p>A final aspect of my work has been focused on how vessels continue to influence morphology of the testis and the fate of surrounding cells. Jennifer Brennan, a graduate student in our lab, previously showed that loss of Pdgfr&#945; antagonizes cord formation and development of male-specific lineages. The mechanisms and cell-types related to this defect were not clear. I began to reanalyze Pdgfr&#945; mutants after finding remarkable similarity to gonads after vascular inhibition. This work is providing data suggesting that vessels are not simply responsible for testis morphology but also for the fate of specialized cells within the testis. On the whole, this thesis describes specific roles for endothelial cells during gonad development and mechanisms by which they are regulated.</p> / Dissertation

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniv. / Härtill 5 uppsatser. På titels. felaktigt: 1997.

The PhD research studied two aspects in tilapia, firstly the analysis of sex determination in Nile tilapia (evidence of complex sex-determining systems) and secondly the genetic management of the tilapia species, using different genomic analysis approaches. This research started with the development of two techniques: minimally invasive DNA sampling from fish mucus, which was found to be suitable for standard genotyping and double-digest restriction-site associated DNA sequencing – ddRADseq; and pre-extraction pooling of tissue samples for ddRADseq (BSA-ddRADseq), which was found to be suitable for identifying a locus linked to a trait of interest (sex in this case). The first molecular evidence concerning the sex determination in genetically improved farmed tilapia (GIFT) was described using BSA-ddRADseq. Given the multiple stock origin of GIFT, surprisingly only a single locus (in linkage group 23) was found to be associated with the phenotypic sex across the population. The first evidence of LG23 influence on phenotypic sex in the Stirling population of Nile tilapia was also found. Different combinations of estrogen hormones and high temperature were tested for feminising Nile tilapia: a combined treatment of estrogen hormone and high temperature was found to be more efficient in feminising Nile tilapia than the estrogen alone. A set of species-diagnostic SNP markers were tested which were found to be suitable to distinguish pure species (O. niloticus, O. mossambicus and O. aureus), and these were used to analyse species contribution to GIFT and a selected tilapia hybrid strain. The results of the current research added novel information to our understanding of sex determination in Nile tilapia, which will be helpful in the development of marker-assisted selection in GIFT and other Nile tilapia strains towards the production of all male offspring. The methods developed also have broader applicability in genetic and genomics research.

Objetivo: Avaliar os resultados da genitoplastia masculinizante, com a técnica de Denis Browne, realizada em um grande grupo de pacientes com distúrbios do desenvolvimento sexual (DDS) tratados em um único hospital de referência. Pacientes e Métodos: Avaliamos 65 pacientes (57 com DDS 46,XY e 8 com DDS 46,XX) com hipospádia proximal e genitália ambígua. Os resultados cosméticos e sintomas urinários foram avaliados objetivamente e os pacientes responderam a um questionário sobre sintomas urinários, atividade sexual e satisfação pessoal após o tratamento cirúrgico. A idade dos pacientes na primeira cirurgia foi em média de 9 ± 10 anos e o segundo tempo cirúrgico foi realizado em média 14,5 ± 16,3 meses após a primeira cirurgia. O seguimento destes pacientes foi em média de 15,1 ± 10 anos e a idade dos pacientes na avaliação final foi em média de 25,9 ± 14,1 anos. Resultados: O aspecto cosmético foi considerado bom em 44%, regular em 53% e ruim em 3% dos pacientes. Houve diferença estatisticamente significante na média do tamanho peniano antes do tratamento entre os grupos com deficiência de 5-RD2 e com DDS de etiologia indeterminada (p<0,05). A média do tamanho peniano na avaliação final dos pacientes póspúberes foi de 7,8 ±2,4 cm, variando de 4 to 12 cm correspondendo a -4,4 ± 1,3 DP (-6,5 a -1,5 DP). Houve diferença estatisticamente significante no tamanho peniano entre os grupos com deficiência na produção de testosterona e com deficiência de 5-RD2 e entre os grupos com DDS de etiologia indeterminada e deficiência de 5-RD2 (p<0,05). O grupo com deficiência de 5-RD2 apresentou o menor tamanho peniano na avaliação final (-5,4±1 DP). As complicações mais freqüentes foram a fistula uretral encontradas em 50% dos pacientes seguida de estenose, presente em 20% dos pacientes. O sintoma urinário mais freqüente foi a perda urinária pós miccional. A atividade sexual foi referida por 86% dos pacientes adultos sendo definida como adequada em 60%, satisfatória em 29% e insatisfatória em 11% dos pacientes. Em relação ao resultado cirúrgico, 84% dos pacientes referiram estar satisfeitos porem 11% estavam insatisfeitos com o tamanho peniano e 5% com a presença de estenose uretral. Conclusão: A maioria dos pacientes com DDS submetidos a genitoplastia masculinizante pela técnica de Denis Browne mostrou-se satisfeita com os resultados cirúrgicos. Entretanto, queixas sobre o tamanho peniano, atividade sexual e micção indicam que novas abordagens devem ser desenvolvidas para melhor resultado morfológico e funcional dos pacientes com distúrbio do desenvolvimento sexual. / Purpose: To evaluate the results of masculinizing genitoplasty with the Denis Browne technique performed in a large cohort of patients with disorders of sex development (DSD) treated at a single tertiary centre. Patients and Methods: We evaluated 65 patients (57 with 46,XY DSD and 8 with 46,XX DSD) with proximal hypospadias and genital ambiguity. Cosmetic results and the urinary stream were evaluated objectively, and the patients responded questionnaires regarding satisfaction with the surgical results, as well as urinary and sexual symptoms. The age at first surgery was 9±10 years and the second stage was performed after 14.5±16.3 months. The mean followup was 15.1±10 years and the average patients age at the last examination was 25.9±14.1 years. Results: Cosmetic results were considered good in 44%, regular in 53% and poor in 3% of the cases. The comparison of the mean penile length among 46,XY DSD groups identified a significant statistically difference between 5-RD2 deficiency and undetermined DSD groups at diagnosis (p<0.05). The mean penile length at last clinical evaluation in post-pubertal patients was 7.8 ±2.4 cm, ranging from 4 to 12 cm corresponding to -4,4 ± 1,3 SD (-6.5 to -1.5 SD) and there was a significant statistically difference in the mean penile length amongst testosterone production deficiency and undetermined DSD groups with 5-RD2 deficiency group (p<0.05). The 5RD2 deficiency group presented the smallest penile length at the last evaluation (-5.4±1 SD). The most common complications were urethral fistula (50%) and stenosis (20%) and the most frequent urinary symptom was dribbling after micturition. Sexual activity was reported by 86% of adult patients and was adequate in 60%, satisfactory in 29% and unsatisfactory in 11% of them. Overall, 84% referred satisfaction with surgical results, but 11% complained about penile length and 5% about urethral stenosis. Conclusion: Most of the DSD patients were satisfied with the longterm results of masculinizing genitoplasty using Denis Browne technique, although specific complaints about small penis size, sexual activity and urinary symptoms were frequent. New approaches should be developed to achieve full satisfaction of DSD patients in adulthood.

Chez les mammifères, la détermination du sexe est un processus moléculaire complexe impliquant une balance de gènes finement régulée entre la voie mâle et femelle. La formation de testicules est initiée par SRY en synergie avec SF1 par sur-activation de l'expression de SOX9 au delà d'un seuil critique, ce qui entraîne l'activation du programme de la voie mâle et la répression de la développement ovarien. Des erreurs dans ce processus peuvent entraîner des pathologies de dysgénésie gonadique (DSD). Bien que de nombreux gènes impliqués dans le développement des gonades, sont à présent identifiés, les mutations de ces gènes n'expliquent qu'une minorité de cas de DSD, et les mécanismes conduisant à un développement sexuel inapproprié restent encore largement méconnus.Nous avons identifié, pour la première fois, une mutation ponctuelle dans le gène DMRT1 humain, facteur crucial de la détermination du sexe chez différentes espèces, associée à une absence de développement testiculaire. Une série d'analyses fonctionnelles démontrent le mécanisme par lequel cette mutation pourrait être lie à un DSD et que, différemment de chez la souris, DMRT1 humain, est impliqué dans la détermination testiculaire primaire.Le séquençage d’exomes sur des patients présentant un DSD de type 46,XY ont permis d’identifier des mutations délétères chez SOX7 & SOX8, suggérant une possible redondance fonctionnelle parmi les gènes SOX dans la détermination du sexe; mais également des mutations chez GATA4 établissant un rôle pour ce gène comme cause de DSD. Nos résultats d’analyses fonctionnelles indiquent des changements dans l'activité biologique des protéines mutées, mais dans certains cas, ne révèlent pas les mécanismes impliqués dans l’apparition de DSD. Par conséquent, le développement de nouveaux modèles cellulaires in-vitro pourrait permettre d’élucider ces mécanismes. Notamment, l’utilisation de cellules souches embryonnaires de souris, nous permettra de développer un nouveau modèle cellulaire pour mieux comprendre l'effet biologique de ces mutations. / In mammals, sex determination and development is a complex process that involves genetic networks acting synergistically or antagonistically. Testis formation is initiated by SRY+SF1 up-regulation of SOX9 expression beyond a critical level, resulting in the activation of male-specific program and ovaries repression. In females, SRY absence results in the activation of ovarian development and testis repression. Errors in the process result in gonadal dysgenesis (DSD). Although, we begin to know the genes involved in gonad development, mutations in these genes explain only few DSD cases, and the mechanism leading to abnormal sexual development remain misunderstood. DMRT1 regulates sex-determination in different species. Its role in mammalian sex-determination is unclear. We identified the first point mutation in human DMRT1 associated with a lack of testis-determination. Functional analyses revealed the mechanism by which this mutation could lead to DSD. Showing that, differently to mouse, human DMRT1 is involved in primary testis-determination and that at molecular level sex-determination a very conserved process. Further studies using exome sequencing on patients with 46,XY DSD identify pathogenic mutations in 2 SOX genes: SOX7 & SOX8. Suggesting a possible functional redundancy amongst SOX genes in sex-determination. We identified mutations in GATA4 associated with 46,XY DSD, establishing a role for this gene as a DSD cause. The functional consequences of these mutations on their biological activity were assessed using classical approaches. Our results indicate changes in biological activity of the mutated proteins but in some cases don’t reveal the mechanisms involved in DSD. Therefore, the development of novel in-situ cellular models may provide a tool to identify these mechanisms. Using mouse embryonic stem cells we’re developing novel cellular models to understand the biological effect of these mutations in the appropriate environment.

FOXL2 est un facteur de transcription crucial pour la fonction ovarienne. Dans l'espèce humaine, des mutations hétérozygotes de ce gène sont responsables de la survenue d'un syndrome associant des malformations des paupières à une insuffisance ovarienne prématurée. De même chez la souris, l'invalidation totale de Foxl2 conduit à un blocage de la folliculogenèse et donc à une infertilité femelle. Chez la chèvre, la mutation Polled Intersex Syndrome (PIS) engendre le silence transcriptionnel de FOXL2 dans les gonades XX PIS-/- ce qui conduit à une inversion sexuelle et à la différenciation de testicules à la place d'ovaires chez les animaux génétiquement femelles homozygotes pour la mutation (inversion sexuelle de type mâle XX). FOXL2 est donc déterminant pour la différenciation ovarienne très précocement au cours du développement dans l'espèce caprine, alors qu'il ne semble impliqué que plus tardivement dans l'établissement de la fertilité chez la souris et la femme. Afin de comprendre ces différences entre espèces, nous avons recherché quels étaient les gènes et les voies de signalisation régulés par FOXL2 dans l'ovaire de chèvre au début de sa différenciation. Grâce à un séquençage à haut-débit des transcrits présents dans trois types de gonades caprines (testicules XY, ovaires XX et gonades XX PIS-/- (qui n'expriment pas FOXL2)) au début de leur différenciation, nous avons pu (i) mieux caractériser le rôle de FOXL2 dans l'ovaire caprin et montrer qu'il y agit avant tout comme un facteur anti-testiculaire, et (ii) mettre en évidence de nouveaux gènes pro-ovariens comme DMXL2 et étudier son rôle putatif dans la fonction ovarienne grâce à des expériences fonctionnelles chez la souris. / FOXL2 is a transcription factor which is crucial for the ovary. In humans, heterozygous mutations are responsible for the BPES syndrome characterized by eyelid anomalies and premature ovarian failure. Similarly in mice, Foxl2 invalidation leads to complete folliculogenesis disruption and female infertility. In the goat, the Polled Intersex Syndrome mutation is responsible for the transcriptional silencing of FOXL2 in XX PIS-/- gonads that leads to female-to-male sex reversal and the differentiation of testes instead of ovaries in genetically female animals homozygous for the mutation. Thus, FOXL2 is determining for ovarian differentiation early during development in goats, whereas it is involved in fertility tardily in mice and women. In order to understand these species-specific differences, we searched for the genes and pathways regulated by FOXL2 in early goat ovaries. Thanks to RNA-sequencing of goat XY testes, XX ovaries and XX PIS-/- gonads (lacking FOXL2) at the beginning of their differentiation, we were able to (i) better characterize the role of FOXL2 in goat ovaries and show that it acts mainly as an anti-testis factor, and (ii) highlight new pro-ovarian genes like DMXL2, and study its putative role during ovarian development using functional experiments in the mouse.

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