Le shoveling de l'incisive centrale maxillaire est une caractéristique dentaire non-métrique utilisée en anthropologie comme indicateur des relations entre les populations. Ce trait morphologique dentaire est défini comme le degré d'élévation des crêtes mésiales et distales marginales sur la surface linguale des incisives maxillaires avec des formes plus prononcées renfermant une fosse. Plusieurs tentatives ont été faites pour classer et évaluer les différences de shoveling entre les populations humaines modernes et fossiles, en utilisant d'abord des approches descriptives détaillées et en élaborant par la suite des systèmes de notation ordinale des traits. A ce jour, la technique gold standard pour l'analyse du shoveling est basée sur une échelle ordinale de sept grades qui a été adaptée et intégrée à un système formel de notation des traits non métriques de la morphologie dentaire: le Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System (ASUDAS). Ce protocole standard est basé sur des plaques de plâtre de référence représentant les moulages de dents sélectionnées montrant un gradient d'expression d'un trait particulier. La notation ordinale, même si elle est contrôlée par des définitions strictes des caractéristiques, des références visuelles et l'expérience de l'observateur, comprend une part inévitable de subjectivité. De plus, les supports d'information conventionnels utilisés par ASUDAS peuvent entrainer des pertes d'information dans le temps. Dans un premier temps, nous avons élaboré une nouvelle approche morphométrique quantitative pour évaluer la variation du shoveling des incisives centrales maxillaires humaines modernes (UI1). Nous avons analysé par imagerie virtuelle 87 UI1 humaines modernes (Europe, Afrique, Asie) et les 7 UI1 de la plaque de référence ASU-UI1 en utilisant la morphométrie géométrique et le positionnement de points de repères glissants. Les résultats de la répartition du shoveling en fonction des populations selon notre nouvelle méthode morphométrique sont en étroite corrélation avec la répartition du shoveling largement décrite dans la littérature. En outre, nos résultats ont mis en évidence certaines limites dans l'utilisation des plaques ASUDAS, laissant supposer qu'elles ne représentent pas nécessairement un gradient objectif d'expression de cette caractéristique dentaire non métrique. [...] / The shoveling of the maxillary central incisor is a non-metric dental characteristic frequently used in anthropology as an indicator of population relations for its taxonomic and phylogenetic relevance for many decades. This dental morphological feature is defined as the degree of elevation of the mesial and distal marginal ridges on the lingual surface of the maxillary incisors, canines and mandibular incisors, with more pronounced pit-like forms. From the 19th century until today, several attempts have been made to classify and assess the shoveling differences between fossil and modern human populations, first using detailed descriptive approaches and later developing ordinal feature notation systems. The standard gold technique for shoveling analysis is based on a seven-grade ordinal scale that has been adapted and integrated into a formal system for scoring non-metric features of dental morphology: the Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System (ASUDAS). This widely-used standard protocol is based on reference plaster plaques representing the casts of selected teeth showing a gradient of expression of a particular trait. Ordinal notation, even if controlled by strict definitions of characteristics, visual references, and observer experience, includes an inevitable element of subjectivity. Moreover, the conventional information support used by ASUDAS can lead to loss of information over time. Some researchers have attempted to reduce visual subjectivity by measuring the depth of lingual shoveling, but with little success in their results due to method accuracy problems. First, we developed a new quantitative morphometric approach to assess the shoveling variation of modern human maxillary central incisors (UI1). We analyzed by virtual imaging 87 modern human UI1 (Europe, Africa, Asia) and the 7 UI1 of the ASU-UI1 reference plaque using geometric morphometry and the positioning of sliding reference points. The results of the distribution of shoveling according to populations according to our new morphometric method are in close correlation with the distribution of shoveling widely described in the literature. In addition, our results showed some limitations in the use of ASUDAS plaques, suggesting that they do not necessarily represent an objective gradient of expression of this non-metric dental characteristic. [...]

Otto Scheeloch's U.S. Patent No. 134,442 of 1872 describes a unique firearm that uses triangular bullets. The current research effort evaluates the ballistic performance of Otto's disclosure for the very first time. To achieve this goal it was necessary to seek out surviving artifacts and scour the historical record in search of all the parameters needed to meticulously recreate the curious triangular cartridges and the corresponding gun barrel, with its matching twisted triangular bore. Every aspect of the resulting reproduction ammunition was made to be as authentic as possible, including the use of vintage civil war era bullet lead, bullet grease of period recipe, and the correct type of black powder propellant. 3D CAD (SolidWorksTM) was employed in designing the components, while advanced rapid prototyping (FDM & DMLS) techniques and investment casting were used in the physical construction of the ammunition and barrel. The ballistics testing was performed from a shooting rest over a range of 10-feet. Data was obtained for five rounds using a chronograph, paper targets and ballistic gel. The triangular bullets proved to be surprisingly accurate, consistent, and stable in flight. Data was recorded for sectional density, ballistic coefficient, muzzle velocity and energy, group size and penetration.

<p>Detta arbete syftar till att undersöka vilket konventionellt ballistiskt skydd som krävs för att undvika penetration från finkalibriga projektiler, RSV-stridsdelar samt penetrerande stridsvagnsmina. Arbetet tar sitt ursprung i en handbok utgiven av FMV där stridsdelar som kan förekomma i Afghanistan behandlas. Handboken anger data och prestanda för dessa stridsdelar och det är därifrån arbetet tar uppgifter om genomslagsförmåga för stridsdelen. Skyddsprinciper och verkansprinciper för stridsdelar hämtas i huvudsak från rapporter utgivna av FOI samt från litteratur utgiven av FHS. Arbetets beskrivande delar inleds med en redogörelse för homogena ballistiska skyddsmaterial av metall samt keramer. Därefter beskrivs verkans principer för finkalibriga projektiler, strålbildande RSV, projektilbildande RSV samt penetrerande stridsvagnsminor. Arbetet fortgår med en beskrivning av en finkalibrig projektil med kaliber 7,62*54R mm, hot av typen RPG-7 med tillhörande ammunition samt stridsvagnsmina TMK-2. Avslutningsvis presenteras resultat på vilket ballistiskt skydd som krävs för att skydda sig mot dessa stridsdelar samt en diskussion kring resultatet och alternativa lösningar på problemet. Det presenteras även några förslag på ny forskning inom området verkan och skydd.</p> / <p>This essay aims to investigate which conventional ballistic protection required preventing penetrationof small-caliber projectiles, shaped charged warheads and anti-tank mine. The essay takes its originin a handbook published by the Swedish Defense Material Administration, (FMV), where the warheads that can occur in Afghanistan are presented. The handbook present data of the warheads and it is from here information regarding the warheads penetration capabilities is taken. Effect principles and protection principles of the warheads are primarily gathered from reports published bythe FOI and from literature published by the National Defense College of Sweden, (FHS). The essays descriptional parts begin with an explanation of homogeneous ballistic protection materials fabricated in metal and ceramics. It then continues with a description of effect principles of small caliber projectiles, shaped charge projectiles, explosively formed projectiles and anti-tank mines. The essay then continues with a description of a small caliber projectile with caliber 7.62*54R mm, threats of RPG-7 type with its ammunition and the anti-tank mine TMK-2. In the end of the essay, results are presented according to the ballistic protection required to protect against the presented warheads, and a discussion of the result and alternative solutions to the problem.</p>

In this thesis, I examine the variation in plant species richness along gradients of productivity and disturbance in grasslands and forest habitats in southern Sweden, and I compare the documented patterns with theoretical predictions. Moreover, I evaluate the relative importance of habitat quality and habitat configuration for the occurrence of field layer species in deciduous forests. Finally, I present a new method for the determination of the regional species pool. To examine regional and local variation in plant species richness, I gathered data on species composition in plots of different size (0.001 - 1000 m2) in three vegetation types (deciduous forests, dry grasslands and coastal meadows) in four regions of southern Sweden (Öland, Gotland, Småland and Uppland). As predicted by the species pool hypothesis, differences in small-scale species richness of deciduous forests and dry grasslands were correlated with differences in the size of the regional species pool. Moreover, among plots large-scale diversity was predictive of small-scale diversity. Species diversity showed a hump-shaped relationship with productivity in forests, and was related to environmental heterogeneity and the size of the 'habitat-specific' species pool. In the two types of grassland examined, grazed sites were richer in species than abandoned sites. Moreover, both species composition and the representation of plants with different life-history characteristics differed between grazed and abandoned sites. As predicted by the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, species richness was highest at intermediate levels of grazing in coastal meadows. However, all the above patterns were scale-dependent, and not observed at all plot sizes. The occurrence of field layer species in deciduous forests was more strongly related to habitat quality (mainly soil factors) than to habitat configuration (forest area and isolation). Across species, low seed production, clonal reproduction and habitat specificity were negatively associated with isolation.

Detta arbete syftar till att undersöka vilket konventionellt ballistiskt skydd som krävs för att undvika penetration från finkalibriga projektiler, RSV-stridsdelar samt penetrerande stridsvagnsmina. Arbetet tar sitt ursprung i en handbok utgiven av FMV där stridsdelar som kan förekomma i Afghanistan behandlas. Handboken anger data och prestanda för dessa stridsdelar och det är därifrån arbetet tar uppgifter om genomslagsförmåga för stridsdelen. Skyddsprinciper och verkansprinciper för stridsdelar hämtas i huvudsak från rapporter utgivna av FOI samt från litteratur utgiven av FHS. Arbetets beskrivande delar inleds med en redogörelse för homogena ballistiska skyddsmaterial av metall samt keramer. Därefter beskrivs verkans principer för finkalibriga projektiler, strålbildande RSV, projektilbildande RSV samt penetrerande stridsvagnsminor. Arbetet fortgår med en beskrivning av en finkalibrig projektil med kaliber 7,62*54R mm, hot av typen RPG-7 med tillhörande ammunition samt stridsvagnsmina TMK-2. Avslutningsvis presenteras resultat på vilket ballistiskt skydd som krävs för att skydda sig mot dessa stridsdelar samt en diskussion kring resultatet och alternativa lösningar på problemet. Det presenteras även några förslag på ny forskning inom området verkan och skydd. / This essay aims to investigate which conventional ballistic protection required preventing penetrationof small-caliber projectiles, shaped charged warheads and anti-tank mine. The essay takes its originin a handbook published by the Swedish Defense Material Administration, (FMV), where the warheads that can occur in Afghanistan are presented. The handbook present data of the warheads and it is from here information regarding the warheads penetration capabilities is taken. Effect principles and protection principles of the warheads are primarily gathered from reports published bythe FOI and from literature published by the National Defense College of Sweden, (FHS). The essays descriptional parts begin with an explanation of homogeneous ballistic protection materials fabricated in metal and ceramics. It then continues with a description of effect principles of small caliber projectiles, shaped charge projectiles, explosively formed projectiles and anti-tank mines. The essay then continues with a description of a small caliber projectile with caliber 7.62*54R mm, threats of RPG-7 type with its ammunition and the anti-tank mine TMK-2. In the end of the essay, results are presented according to the ballistic protection required to protect against the presented warheads, and a discussion of the result and alternative solutions to the problem.

Many archaeologists have been intrigued by how often symbolic houses of varying forms are used on the burialgrounds of the Scandinavian Bronze Age. Some scholars even claim that to deal with the dead did not mean to set them apart from the world of the living during this period. Since several examples show that there seem to be an active connection between the ship-setting and different types of symbolic houses, this study seek to demonstrate and interpret how the ideology behind these symbols vary between three regionally different Swedish areas: Halland, Småland and Gotland. The purpose is to show that the way chosen to shape the symbols materially not only had fundamental impact on the organization of the burialground itself, but also on how the surrounding world came to comprenhend and use them. This study suggests that even though the special shapes of the graves and the gravefield itself can carry meaning, the materialization of the monuments can be interpreted as incorporated in a practice of remembrance in where the individual shaping of the grave most probably formed part of a greater story.

The second-hand vehicle market in Europe, America, and Japan has entered the mature period and showed the following market characteristic: 1.Large business volume and has formed effect of scale Volume of the second-hand vehicle business in developed countries is lot more than the volume of the new vehicle. Generally it is above a time. According to the summary statistics, the annual sales volume of American second-hand vehicle is already 2.5 times of its new vehicle sales volume, and the year sales volume of Japanese second-hand vehicle has continuously surpassed its new vehicle the sales volume for many years. Just because of huge second-hand vehicle market, the developed countries can maintain a stable and huge market of new vehicle market. The related data demonstrated that, in a mature auto market, the average of vehicle discard cycle is about 8 - 12 years, but the average of vehicle renew cycle is less than 4 years. It is obvious that the second-hand vehicle market has quite a few of the spaces to operate. 2.Lower price and balance the supply and demand quantity in the market The 21st century has become "the automobile society". Cars have become an essential transportation for the modern families, but consumers from different levels have different demands for cars. Part of the consumers, which from middle class and above mainly buy new cars. They pay more attention to the reliability of the vehicles instead of the price. Most of them would consider changing cars after four or five years when the reliability of the vehicle go down and the chance of accidental breakdown increase. But consumers, which are below the middle class, then take the second-hand car as the main consideration. It is because of the lower price consideration. The price of second-hand car is about half of a new car. It's still quite reliable to be used for two to four years. And the loss of depreciation value would be smaller than buying a new car. Such second-hand car is still possible to be sold once more after using. The price then would be only 20%-30% of a new one. Those cars are mainly sold to the people who have lower income or students who have no income. Moreover there are some older cars that even cost less, which costs only about 5%-10% of a new car. Although it is a must to spend certain money on maintenance costs, the total cost would still be the lowest. It is quite beneficial. Therefore the supply of second-hand vehicle is a little bit larger than the demand quantity. The price of the second-hand cars is also lower. That is to balance the supply and demand quantity in the market 3.The system organize well and promote the market to be developed Second-hand vehicle markets in the developed countries generally form a perfect purchasing and selling system. And that promotes the organization of second-hand auction and wholesale. Governments formulate related laws of second-hand vehicle trading to protect consumer's rights and interests. Each organization runs fairly and effective and that makes the price in second-hand vehicle markets of the developed countries tend to be stable. Consumers do not have to worry about the loss which is from the unstable value of vehicles. The value of second-hand vehicles affects the guarantee value of vehicles and the stimulation of buying new cars deep and far. The steady of second-hand vehicle markets has made new- and second-hand vehicle markets promote fairly well. The generality of second-hand vehicle markets in developing countries are: 1. Less source and higher price Because of the average income of the developing countries is lot more lower than the developed countries, the proportion of wanting to buy second-hand cars is lot more than the developed countries. Furthermore, vehicle renew cycle of these countries is longer than the developed countries. Therefore make the source of second-hand vehicle to be limited. And the situation of supply is unable to meet the demand is very common. It has made the price of second-hand vehicle become lot higher than the developed countries. Even though, the price of second-hand cars is still lower than new cars. Considering from the economy, second-hand cars are still popular. 2. The trading is flexible and the management is tend to be ruled day by day The main characteristic of the second-hand vehicle markets in developing countries is flexible trading. There are direct personal trading, store trading, and also auction trading. Anyhow they regulate and run by the market rules themselves. Although the second-hand vehicles markets have go along for many years, it is still immature. There is still a certain difference in scale, price, market standard, and market operation from developed countries. These countries have already realized this and are now trying to improve. They are endeavoring to regulate the law and the policy and also coordinating with the new- and second-hand markets. They are trying to regulate the price and balance the supply and demanding. These have made their trading way become closer to the developed countries. Market of Taiwan has also followed this tendency to Europe, America, and Japan. Comparing with the developed countries, the second-hand vehicle markets in Taiwan starts later but develops faster. The trading way is like the Eight Immortals crossing the sea, each one showing his special prowess. The trading pattern and the legal rules are still not soundness. The disputes happen quite often. Before the information of a new car has not fully exposed, it is risky to purchase second-hand car. Consumer could just be the last white mouse for the sellers and can only pray for himself. Making a comprehensive survey of second-hand vehicle markets in developed countries like America and Japan, the policy, the law and the coordination between the new- and second-hand vehicle markets are the main reason to make second-hand vehicle markets become prosperous in these countries. Because of the legal standard is incomplete in our country. The problem of asymmetric information exists in the market. And that makes the rights and the interests of consumers can not be protected when they purchase cars. This research is mainly investigating via interviews, related documents, and theories, and also case study and analyze. Then induces the system which can promote consumers' rights and interests and also to make consumers' rights and interests to be protected. Therefore they can feel at ease buying cars and also trying to provide proprietors a way to make reference of the system establishment.

In this thesis, two-dimensional (2-D) direction-of-arrival (DOA) estimation problem is considered. Usually, DOA estimation is considered in one dimension assuming a fixed elevation angle. While this assumption simplifies the problem, both the azimuth and elevation angles, namely, the 2-D DOA estimates are required in practical scenarios. In this thesis, planar array structures are considered for 2-D DOA estimation. In this context, V-shaped arrays are discussed and some of the important features of these arrays are outlined. A new method for the design of V-shaped arrays is presented for both isotropic and directional beam patterns. The design procedure is simple and can be applied for both uniform and nonuniform V-shaped sensor arrays. Closed form expressions are presented for the V-angle in order to obtain isotropic angle performance. While circular arrays have the isotropic characteristics, V-shaped arrays present certain advantages due to their large aperture for the same number of sensors and inter-sensor distance. The comparison of circular and V-shaped arrays is done by considering the azimuth and elevation Cramer-Rao Bounds (CRB). It is shown that V-shaped and circular arrays have similar characteristics for the sensor position errors while the uniform isotropic (UI) V-array performs better when there is mutual coupling and the sources are correlated. In the literature, there are several techniques for 2-D DOA estimation. Usually, fast algorithms are desired for this purpose since a search in two dimensions is a costly process. These algorithms have a major problem, namely, the pairing of the azimuth-elevation couples for multiple sources. In this thesis, a new fast and effective technique for this purpose is proposed. In this technique, a virtual array output is generated such that when the ESPRIT algorithm is used, the eigenvalues of the rotational transformation matrix have the 2-D angle information in both magnitude and phase. This idea is applied in different scenarios and three methods are presented for these cases. In one case, given an arbitrary array structure, array interpolation is used to generate the appropriate virtual arrays. When the antenna mutual coupling is taken into account, a special type of array structure, such as circular, should be used in order to apply the array interpolation. In general, the array mutual coupling matrix (MCM) should have a symmetric Toeplitz form. It is shown that the 2-D DOA performance of the proposed method approaches to the CRB by using minimum number of antennas in case of mutual coupling. This method does not require the estimation of the mutual coupling coefficients. While this technique is effective, it has problems especially when the number of sources increases. In order to improve the performance, MCM is estimated in the third approach. This new approach performs better, but it cannot be used satisfactorily in case of multipath signals. In this thesis, the proposed idea for fast 2-D DOA estimation is further developed in order to solve the problem when mutual coupling and multipath signals jointly exist. In this case, real arrays with some auxiliary sensors are used to generate a structured mutual coupling matrix. It is shown that the problem can be effectively solved when the array structure has a special form. Specifically, parallel uniform linear arrays (PULA) are employed for this purpose. When auxiliary sensors are used, a symmetric banded Toeplitz MCM is obtained for the PULA. This allows the application of spatial smoothing and ESPRIT algorithm for 2-D DOA estimation. The proposed algorithm uses triplets and presents closed form paired 2-D DOA estimates in case of unknown mutual coupling and multipath signals. Several simulations are done and it is shown that the proposed array structure and the method effectively solve the problem.

This thesis includes the design, production and measurement of a wideband dualpolarized X-band aperture-coupled microstrip patch antenna. The wideband and dual-polarized operation is achieved through the use of H-shaped coupling slots. Therefore, the equivalent circuit modeling of a microstrip line fed H-shaped slot is also studied in this thesis. A step-by-step procedure is followed during the design process of the dual-polarized aperture-coupled microstrip antenna. First, an aperture-coupled microstrip antenna with a single rectangular slot, that exhibits a wideband characteristic for single polarization, is designed. Then, the design procedure is repeated for an antenna with H-shaped slot in order to satisfy the same specifications with a shorter slot. Finally, dual-polarized aperture-coupled microstrip antenna is designed. At this configuration, two H-shaped slots are used and they are placed orthogonal to each other. During the design process, the effects of antenna parameters on the input impedance characteristics of the antenna are investigated. These parametric analyses are done in CST Microwave Studio&reg / . The v designed dual-polarized wideband aperture-coupled microstrip antenna is manufactured. Simulation results and measurement results are compared. During the equivalent circuit modeling of an H-shaped slot fed by a microstrip line, an approach based on the reciprocity theorem is utilized. The method was originally proposed for rectangular shaped slots, in this thesis it is generalized for arbitrarily shaped slots. Software codes are developed in MATLAB to calculate the equivalent impedance of the slot.

Design of antenna arrays for present day requirements has to take into account both mechanical and electrical aspects. Mechanical aspects demand the antennas to have low profile, non-protruding structures, structures compatible to aerodynamic require­ments and so on. Electrical aspects may introduce several constraints either due to. technical reasons or due to readability conditions in practice. Thus, arrays of modern requirements may not fall into the category of linear or planar arrays. Further, due to the nearby environment, the elements will generate complicated individual patterns. These issues necessitate the analysis and synthesis of antenna arrays which are arbi­trary as far as the orientation, position or the element pattern are concerned. Such arrays which may be called arbitrary arrays are being investigated in this thesis. These investigations have been discussed as different aspects as indicated below: Radiation Characteristics of Arbitrary Arrays Radiation fields of an arbitrarily oriented dipole are obtained. Such fields are plotted for typical cases. Further, methods for transforming the electromagnetic fields are discussed. Having obtained the field due to an arbitrary element, the fields due to an arbitrary array are obtained. Factors controlling the radiation fields, like, the curvature in the array and element pattern are investigated. Radiation patterns of circular and cylindrical arrays are plotted. Synthesis of a Side Lobe Topography Requirements of a narrow beam pattern generated by an antenna array are identified. A problem of synthesizing such a pattern using an arbitrary array is formulated. The envelope of the side lobe region which may be called, the side lobe topography (sit), is included in the computation of the covariance matrix. This problem which has been formulated as a problem of minimizing a quadratic function subjected to a system of linear constraints is solved by the method of Lagrangian multipliers. An iterative procedure is used to satisfy all the requirements of the pattern synthesis. The procedure has been validated by synthesizing linear arrays and is used to synthesize circular and parabolic arrays. Patterns with tapered sit, Taylor-like sit have been synthesized. Asymmetric patterns are also synthesized. Role of sit is brought out. Shaped Beam Synthesis Synthesis of shaped broad beams is discussed. Amplitude constraints are formulated. Phase distribution is linked with the phase centre. Quadratic problems thus formu­lated are solved by the Lagrangian method of undetermined multipliers. An iterative procedure is made use of to synthesize flat topped beams as well as cosecant squared-patterns using linear arrays as well as circular arrays. Reasonable excitation dynamic has been obtained. Optimum phase centres obtained by trial and error are made use of. Effects of the Frequency and Excitation on the Synthesized Patterns In general, synthesized patterns can be sensitive towards any specific parameter either excitation or to frequency or any such parameter. Several methods can be used to observe these issues. In this thesis, these effects are also studied. Using a specific array configuration, to synthesize a specified radiation pattern, frequency is changed by 10% from the design frequency and the pattern is computed. Similarly, excitation phase distribution is rounded to the nearest available phase distribution using a digital phase shifter (say 8 bit) and the resulting pattern is computed. Further, excitation dynamic is also controlled by boosting the amplitudes of the array elements which are less than the permissible (i.e. the maximum excitation/allowed dynamic). Effects of these variations are also recorded. It appears that reasonable patterns can be obtained, in spite of significant variations in these parameters in most of the cases. Reconfigurable Arbitrary Arrays It would be very useful if a single array configuration can be used for different ap- plications. This may be either for the different phases of a single application or for different applications that may be required at different times. Attempts are made to synthesize a variety of patterns from a single array. Such arrays which may be called as reconfigurable arrays can be of much use. Obviously, the excitations are different for different patterns. Both narrow beams, as well as shaped broad beams, with different side lobe topographies have been synthesized using a single array.