The purpose of this study was to determine how manatees use Swallow Caye, Drowned Cayes, and Gallows Reef, three distinct habitat types within the Belize Barrier Reef lagoon system near Belize City. Data were collected using boat-based point scan methods with the assistance of volunteers. Presence/absence and photo ID methods ensured consistency of data collection despite a changing pool of volunteer researchers. Results confirmed the mangrove and seagrass ecosystem between the Belize Barrier Reef and Belize City as important manatee habitat. Inconsistent with the prevailing "seasonal distribution hypothesis" for manatees in Belize, the probability of encountering manatees at Swallow Caye and in the Drowned Cayes was equal between dry and wet seasons. However, manatees were only observed at Gallows Reef during the wet season. Swallow Caye had the highest probability of encountering manatees, confirming traditional knowledge held by local tour operators, which led to the establishment of Swallow Caye Wildlife Sanctuary in 2002. In contrast to previous studies, my data suggest that at least 44% of the manatee population carry scars from non-lethal boat strikes. The proportion of scarred animals did not vary as a function of habitat type, season, or year. The probability of encountering manatees did not change between years, despite an exponential increase in cruise ship tourism. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and wildlife protection laws indicate that Belize is working to meet obligations under international agreements. However, there is still cause for concern. Manatees do not remain inside designated refuge boundaries; governmental agencies depend on co-management agreements with local non-governmental organizations for enforcement of rules inside MPAs; regulations governing human behavior outside MPAs are lacking; funds for monitoring and evaluation of MPAs are lacking. Manatee conservation strategies should be integrated into a system of riverine, coastal, and marine protected areas supported by additional tactics such as required manatee training for boat captains, slow zones at hot spots outside MPAs, and continued educational outreach. With few modifications and increased enforcement and monitoring, the Belize model for manatee conservation could lead to a shared "triumph on the commons" for the manatees and the user groups that shared their habitat.

Among vertebrates, whole-body movement is centered around the vertebral column. The bony vertebral column primarily consists of trabecular (spongy) bone that adapts in vivo to support mechanical demands respective to region, ontogeny, ecology, and locomotion. Previous work has extensively investigated the formfunction relationships of vertebral trabecular bone in terrestrial mammals, who use limb contact with a substrate as the primary support against gravity. However, we lack data from obligate swimming mammals whose locomotor ecology diverged from their terrestrial counterparts in two major ways: (1) body mass is supported by water’s uplifting buoyant forces and (2) swimmers power movement through dorsoventral loading of the axial body. This study examined vertebral trabecular bone mechanical properties and micoarchitecture from fully aquatic mammals, specifically sirenians (i.e. manatees) and cetaceans (i.e. dolphins and whales). We compression tested bone from several regions of the vertebral column among developmental stages in Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) and among 10 cetacean species (Families Delphinidae and Kogiidae) with various swimming modes and diving behaviors. In addition, we microCT scanned a subset of cetacean vertebrae before subjecting them to mechanical tests. We demonstrated that in precocial manatee calves, vertebrae were the strongest and toughest in the posterior vertebral column, which may support rostrocaudal force propagation and increasing bending amplitudes towards the tail tip during undulatory swimming. Among cetaceans, we showed that greatest strength, stiffness, toughness, bone volume fraction, and degree of anisotropy were in rigidtorso shallow-divers, while properties had the smallest values in flexible-torso deep-divers. We propose that animals swimming in shallower waters actively swim more than species that conduct habitual glides during deep descents in the water column, and place comparatively greater loads on their vertebral columns. We found that cetacean bone volume fraction was the best predictor for mechanical properties. Due to the shared non-weight bearing conditions of water and microgravity, we present these data as a contribution to the body of work investigating bone adaptations in mammals that live in weightless conditions throughout life and evolutionary history. / Includes bibliography. / Dissertation (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2020. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Increases in taxonomic sampling and the numbers and types of markers used in phylogenetic studies have resulted in a marked improvement in the interpretation of systematic relationships within Eutheria. However, relationships within several clades, including Paenungulata (Hyracoidea, Sirenia, Proboscidea), remain unresolved. Here the combination of i) a rapid radiation and ii) a deep divergence have resulted in limited phylogenetic signal available for analysis. Specifically i) a short internode separating successive branching events reduces the time available for changes to occur, while ii) the longer the time since divergence, the greater the opportunity for signal to be negatively affected by homoplasy. This is evident in both molecular and morphological data where an overall consensus on paenungulate relationships is lacking. Morphological analysis of anatomical and fossil evidence favours the association of Sirenia (S) and Proboscidea (P) (Tethytheria) to the exclusion of Hyracoidea (H); further, support for uniting these three taxa as Paenungulata is contentious. In contrast, molecular data provide strong support for Paenungulata but intra-ordinal relationships are ambiguous. Although results from mitochondrial DNA sequence data favour Tethytheria, there is no consensus of support for this clade from nuclear DNA. Nuclear DNA is typified by node instability but favours H+P in the largest concatenation of sequences. Due to the expected increased effect from homoplasy and consequently the increased likelihood for misleading signal, it is unclear which result is most likely to represent the “true” tree. An analysis of available and added intron sequences to characterise signal heterogeneity among nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA partitions indicated that the phylogenetic utility of partitions varies considerably. Subpartitioning of the data according to similar evolutionary processes/characteristics (e. g., mtDNA vs. nDNA and codon position) revealed new insights into the signal structure of the data set; specifically i) that nuclear DNA first codon positions, and to a lesser degree second codon sites, provide convincing support for H+P, and ii) that support for S+P by faster evolving sites within mtDNA suggests that this may be the result of misleading signal. If H+P represents the “true tree”, then support for this clade indicates that phylogenetic signal has been reduced over time as a result of multiple hits, which explains the presence of (hidden) support in slower evolving sites where homoplasy is less likely to occur, in contrast to faster evolving sites where no support for H+P was observed. In an attempt to provide further resolution from an alternative perspective to that possible with DNA sequence data, chromosomal rearrangements were identified among the three paenungulate lineages. Using comparative chromosome painting, unique changes within each order and specific to Paenungulata were characterised, however, intra-ordinal synapomorphies were not recovered. Although this may suggest a hard polytomy, the slow to moderate rate of evolution estimated from the data is likely not sufficient relative to the rapid radiation associated with the paenungulate node. Further examination of chromosomal rearrangements at a higher level of resolution may yet reveal informative changes. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: ‘n Toename in die aantal taksonomiese monsters sowel as die aantal en soort merkers wat in filogenetiese studies gebruik word, het tot ‘n merkbare verbetering in die vertolking van sistematiese verwantskappe binne die Eutheria gelei. Desondanks bly ‘n aantal klades (stamlyne), met inbegrip van Paenungulata (Hyracoidea, Sirenia, Proboscidea), steeds onopgelos. By laasgenoemde het die kombinasie van i) ‘n vinnige radiasie en ii) ‘n diep divergensie die filogenetiese sein wat vir analise beskikbaar is, beperk. Meer spesifiek sal i) opeenvolgende vertakkings wat deur kort internodusse geskei word die beskikbare tyd waartydens veranderings kan intree, verminder, terwyl ii) ‘n toename in tydsverloop sedert divergensie die kans dat die sein deur homoplasie nadelig beïnvloed sal word, vergroot. Dit word in sowel molekulêre en morfologiese data, waar ‘n oorhoofse konsensus t.o.v. verwantskappe van Paenungulata ontbreek, waargeneem. Morfologiese analise van anatomiese en fossielbewyse ondersteun die samevoeging van Sirenia (S) en Proboscidea (P) (Tethytheria) ten koste van Hyracoidea (H). Ondersteuning vir die samevoeging van dié drie taksa as Paenungulata is egter aanvegbaar. In teenstelling hiermee word Paenungulata sterk deur molekulêre data ondersteun, al bly die verwantstkappe op intra-orde vlak, steeds onduidelik. Alhoewel die resultate van mitochondriale DNA op Tethytheria dui, word die klade nie deur data van kern-DNA ondersteun nie. Kern-DNA word gekarakteriseer deur node instabiliteit maar verkies H+P in die grootste samevoeging van geen volgordes. Na aanleiding van die verwagte toename in die effek van homoplasie en die gevolglik groter kans op ‘n misleidende sein, is dit nie duidelik watter van die resultate die meer korrekte filogenetiese stamboom verteenwoordig nie. Analise van beskikbare en nuut toegevoegde intron-volgordes om sein-heterogeniteit tussen kern- en mitochondriale DNA verdelings te karakteriseer, toon dat die filogenetiese nut van verdelings beduidend verskil. Onderverdeling van die data op grond van soortgelyke evolusionêre prosesse/karaktereienskappe (bv. mtDNA vs. nDNA, en kodonposisie) het na nuwe insigte in die seinstruktuur van die datastel gelei. Meer spesifiek dat i) kern-DNA se eerste kodonposisies, en tot ‘n mindere mate die tweede kodonposisies, H+P oortuigend ondersteun en ii) dat ondersteuning vir S+P deur posisies binne mtDNA wat vinnig verander, op ‘n misleidende sein mag dui. As H+P die korrekte stamboom verteenwoordig dui ondersteuning vir die klade op ‘n filogenetiese sein wat met verloop van tyd as gevolg van veelvuldige seinvoorkomste verklein het. Dit verklaar die aanwesigheid van versluierde ondersteuning in stadig-veranderende posisies waar die neiging tot homoplasie klein is, in teenstelling met posisies wat vinniger verander en waar ondersteuning vir H+P nie waargeneem is nie. Op soek na verhoogde resolusie vanuit ‘n ander perspektief as DNA-volgordebepaling, is chromosomale herrangskikkings in die drie stamlyne van Paenungulata nagevors. Met behulp van vergelykende chromosoomkleuring is unieke veranderings binne elke orde en spesifiek binne Paenungulata gekarakteriseer, maar geen sinapomorfe kenmerke is op die intra-orde vlak gevind nie. Alhoewel dit op ‘n onopgeloste politomie mag dui, is die stadige tot matige evolusietempo wat van die data afgelei word, relatief tot die vinnige radiasie wat met die Paenungulata-nodus geassosieer word, waarskynlik onvoldoende vir ‘n oplossing. Verdere navorsing oor chromosomale herrangskikkings met ‘n hoër resolusievlak mag addisionele insiggewende veranderings aantoon.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-31T13:29:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 AnaPDB_DISSERT.pdf: 5575228 bytes, checksum: a1c79702c349b805acdba52d04a353ce (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-02-27 / Pathological examination of marine mammals carcasses is an important tool to understand the natural morphophysiology as well as the morphological changes associated with some diseases and thus highlight the potential anthropogenic impacts. This work had as aim conduct studies on histopathology of the organs of the dead stranded cetaceans and Sirenia in the Brazilian northeast coast, or that died during the rehabilitation process in Specialized Centers of the Region. For this, samples were taken belonging to the biological collection of Projeto Cetáceos da Costa Branca (PCCB), Associação de Pesquisa e Preservação de Ecossistemas Aquáticos (AQUASIS) and from Centro de Mamíferos Aquáticos (CMA). The tissue samples were submitted to the conventional method of preparing histological slides. Whereas the studied animals belong to different species, age and sex, a general descriptive analysis of the pathological aspects found in each case was carried out. From a total of 237 samples belonging to 66 individuals of the Cetacea order (n = 28) and Sirenia (n = 38), 34,17% (n = 81) exhibited microscopic changes, 54,85% (n = 130) were normal and 10,97% (n = 26) were autolysed. Among the obvious microscopic changes was diagnosed 50% of stomatitis in the oral system (n = 1), the heart showed 6.66% of interstitial fibrosis (n = 2), 10% of haemorrhage (n = 3) and 6.66% myocarditis (n = 2). The lungs showed pulmonary edema in 19% of the analyzes (n = 11), 10% of vascular congestion% (n = 6), 13% of haemorrhage (n = 8), 3% of emphysema (n = 2), 7% full of hemosiderin (n = 4), 3% of interstitial pneumonia (n = 2), 2% of eosinophilic pneumonia (n = 1), 2% of parasitic granuloma (n = 1), 2% of parasitic cyst (n = 1), 2% of traqueíte (n = 1). In the stomach was visualized a hemorrhage (16.66%; n = 1) and in the gut was detected nodular lymphoid hyperplasia (7%; n = 2), enteritis (4%; n = 1), blood vessels congestion (4%; n = 1) and vacuolar degeneration (4%; n = 1). The livers analysis showed 23% of vacuolar degeneration (n = 5), 9% of hepatocellular necrosis (n = 2), 9% moderate deposit of melanin granules (n = 2), 4.54 % of chronic hepatitis (n = 1), 9% of periportal fibrosis (n = 2), 4.54% of abscess (n = 1), 4.54% of congestion (n = 1), 4.54 % of bilestase (n = 1), and 4.54% proliferation of the bile ducts (n = 1). It was possible to observe in the spleen 20% white pulp rarefaction (n = 2), 10% white and red pulp rarefaction (n = 1), and 30% moderate deposition of melanin granules (n = 3). In the pancreas was observed a 50% of centroacinosas cells rarefaction (n = 1). In the kidneys was found 14% of toxix tube nephrosis (n = 4), 7% of multifocal hemorrhaging (n = 2), 14% of vascular congestion (n = 4), 3.44% presence of bacteria (n = 1), 3.44% of proliferative glomerulonephritis (n = 1), 3.44% of micro abscesses (n = 1), 3.44% of severe edema (n = 1), 3.44% of renal cysts (n = 1) and 3.44% of chronic interstitial nephritis (n = 1). In the uteri evaluated were observed 25% of a focal dystrophic calcification (n = 1) and 25% of metritis (n = 1). In the lymph nodes were observed suggestive abnormalities of immunosuppression (25%; n = 1), bleeding (25%; n = 1) and melanose (50%; n = 2). Other findings include rarefaction of the adrenal cells (50%, n = 1), fewer sperm cells into the lumen (14,28%; n = 2) or presence of only spermatogonia in the seminiferous tubules (21,42%; n = 3), and 25% focal hyperplasia of the bladder (n = 1). Despite the changes present in many systems, lung diseases were higher in cetaceans bodies and sirenians stranded on the Brazilian northeast coast / O estudo anatomopatológico das carcaças dos mamíferos marinhos é uma ferramenta importante para conhecer a morfofisiologia natural, bem como as alterações morfológicas associadas com algumas doenças e, desta forma, evidenciar os possíveis impactos antropogênicos. O presente trabalho teve como intuito realizar estudos sobre histopatologia dos órgãos de cetáceos e sirênios. Para isso, foram utilizadas amostras pertencentes ao acervo biológico do Projeto Cetáceos da Costa Branca (PCCB), da Associação de Pesquisa e Preservação de Ecossistemas Aquáticos (AQUASIS) e do Centro de Mamíferos Aquáticos (CMA). Os fragmentos teciduais foram submetidos ao método convencional de preparação de lâminas histológicas. As peças passaram pelos processos de desidratação e diafanização, banho em parafina líquida, inclusão em bloco, e posterior corte em micrótomo rotativo. Os cortes, de quatro a cinco micra de espessura, foram colocados em lâminas lapidadas e submetidos ao método de coloração Hematoxilina-eosina (H.E.), sendo então montados utilizando-se lamínula e resina sintética. Considerando que os animais em estudo pertencem a diferentes espécies, faixas etárias e sexo, foi realizada uma análise descritiva geral dos aspectos patológicos encontrados em cada caso. De um total de 237 amostras pertencentes a 66 indivíduos da ordem Cetacea (n=28) e Sirenia (n=38), 34,17% (n=81) apresentaram alterações microscópicas, 54,85% (n=130) estavam normais e 10,97% (n=26) se encontravam autolisadas. Dentre as alterações microscópicas evidentes foi diagnosticado no sistema bucal 50% de estomatite (n=1), o coração apresentou 6,66% de fibrose intersticial (n=2), 10% de hemorragia (n=3) e 6,66% de miocardite (n=2). Os pulmões mostraram em 19% das análises edema pulmonar (n=11), 10% de congestão vascular (n=6), 13% de hemorragia (n=8), 3% de enfisema (n=2), 7% hemossiderose (n=4), 3% pneumonia intersticial (n=2), 2% de pneumonia eosinofílica (n=1), 2% de granuloma parasitário (n=1), 2% de cisto parasitário (n=1), 2% de traqueíte (n=1). No estômago foi visualizado em um sirênio áreas extensas de hemorragia (16,66%; n=1) e no intestino foi detectado hiperplasia nodular linfóide (7%; n=2), enterite (4%; n=1), congestão dos vasos (4%; n=1) e degeneração vacuolar (4%; n=1). Os fígados analisados mostraram 23% de degeneração vacuolar (n=5), 9% de necrose hepatocelular (n=2), 9% de depósito moderado de grânulos de melanina (n=2), 4,54% de hepatite crônica (n=1), 9% de fibrose periportal (n=2), 4,54% de abscesso (n=1), 4,54% de congestão (n=1), 4,54% de bilestase (n=1), e 4,54% de proliferação dos ductos biliares (n=1). Nos baços foi possível constatar 20% de rarefação de polpa branca (n=2), 10% de rarefação de polpa branca e vermelha (n=1), e 30% de deposição moderada de grânulos de melanina (n=3). No pâncreas foi observado uma rarefação das células centroacinosas em 50% (n=1) das amostras. Nos rins foi encontrado 14% de nefrose tubular tóxica (n=4), 7% de hemorragia multifocal (n=2), 14% de congestão vascular (n=4), 3,44% de presença de bactérias (n=1), 3,44% de glomerulonefrite proliferativa (n=1), 3,44% de microabscessos (n=1), 3,44% de edema severo (n=1), 3,44% de cistos renais (n=1) e 3,44% de nefrite intersticial crônica (n=1). Nos úteros avaliados foi observado 25% de calcificação distrófica focal (n=1) e 25% de metrite (n=1). Nos linfonodos foram observados alterações sugestivas de imunossupressão (25%; n=1), hemorragia (25%; n=1), e melanose (50%; n=2). Outros achados incluíram rarefação das células da adrenal (50%, n=1), poucos espermatozoides no lúmen (14,28%; n=2) ou presença apenas de espermatogônias nos túbulos seminíferos (21,42%; n=3), e 25% de hiperplasia focal da bexiga (n=1). Apesar das alterações presentes em diversos sistemas, as patologias pulmonares foram superiores as demais tanto em órgãos de cetáceos como em sirênios encalhados no litoral do nordeste brasileiro

Belize has been identified as an important location for Antillean manatees (Trichechus manatus manatus), harboring the highest known population density of this subspecies. Information about their dietary habit is important in determining habitat requirements and aiding in conservation efforts. The main objective of this study was to identify the key plant species consumed by manatees in Belize and to establish differences in diet based on location, sex, size classification, and season. Samples were collected from two different locations within Belize where manatees are known to aggregate: Southern Lagoon and the Drowned Cayes off of Belize City. The contents of thirteen mouth, six digestive tract (stomach, duodenum and colon), and 124 fecal samples were analyzed. Five species of seagrasses (Halodule wrightii, Thalassia testudinum, Ruppia maritima, Syringodium filiforme, and Halophila sp.) made up the highest percentage of plants consumed; undigested rhizome was most prevalent. A vascular plant, the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), was identified as an important food item of manatees in Belize. Algae (Chara sp., Lyngbia sp., and Ulvasp.) and invertebrates (diatoms and sponges) were represented as well. These items are comparable to other reports of manatee diets in areas near Belize and areas with similar habitat. Variation in the percentage of seagrass, mangrove, and algae consumption was analyzed as a 4-factor factorial Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with main effects and interactions for locality (Southern Lagoon and the Drowned Cayes), sex, size classification (>245 cm & ˂245 cm), and season (December – May and June – November). Sex and season did not influence diet composition; differences for locality and size classification were observed. Seagrass was more often consumed in Southern Lagoon (P = 0.03), whereas mangroves and algae were more prevalent in the Drowned Cayes (P = 0.03). No differences among size classifications in consumption of seagrasses or mangroves were observed. A significantly higher number of samples from adults (>245 cm) than juveniles (˂245 cm) contained algae (P = 0.04). This is most likely attributed to inexperience in foraging. Findings from these results suggest that diet composition analysis can be used to interpret Antillean manatee habitat and resource utilization and can aid in the conservation of this endangered species.

Die zu den Sirenia, oder Seekühen, zählende Gattung Halitherium ist mit Arten aus dem Obereozän bis Untermiozän bekannt. Obwohl Halitherium als monophyletisch angesehen wird, bestätigen alle bisherigen phylogenetischen Analysen die Paraphylie dieser Gruppe. Auch die auf Halitherium basierende nur fossil bekannte Unterfamilie Halitheriinae ist paraphyletisch und umfasst wiederum fast ausnahmslos paraphyletische Gattungen. Der Fokus liegt auf der Typusart H. schinzii. Deren Holotyp, ein Premolar, wird als undiagnostisch definiert und infolgedessen H. schinzii als nomen dubium eingestuft. Die Neubeschreibung sämtlicher dieser Art zugeordneter Skelettreste liefert neue morphologische Daten. So kann die Hypothese von zwei sympatrisch vorkommenden Morphospezies im Unteroligozän Zentraleuropas auf Basis mehrerer unterscheidender Merkmale gestützt werden. Für die Verwandtschaftsanalyse der „Halitherium“ traditionell zugeordneten Arten und die Ermittlung ihrer phylogenetischen Stellung innerhalb der Ordnung Sirenia finden strenge kladistische Prinzipien Berücksichtigung. Eine revidierte, ergänzte und erweiterte Merkmalsmatrix stellt dabei den bisher größten morphologischen Datensatz über Sirenia dar. Die phylogenetischen Analysen zeigen, dass die „Halitherium“ Arten keine monophyletische Gruppe bilden. Im Zuge dieser systematisch-taxonomischen Revision werden die „Halitheriinae“ eingezogen und vier neue Gattungen aufgestellt. Des Weiteren wird eine neue Klassifikation der Sirenia vorgeschlagen, in der eine konsequente Unterscheidung zwischen einer paraphyletischen Stammgruppe und einer monophyletischen Kronengruppe Anwendung findet. Diese Studie liefert neue Daten über die Diversität und Biogeographie von Sirenen. Die herausragendsten Ergebnisse sind zum einen die Revision einer der zweifelhaftesten Sirenia Gruppen, die „Halitheriinae“. Zum anderen wird für den Ursprung der Kronengruppensirenen ein eher unteroligozäner statt eozäner Zeitpunkt postuliert. / The genus Halitherium includes a number of fossil sirenian species, or sea cows, ranging from the late Eocene to early Miocene. Although Halitherium is assumed to be monophyletic, all previous phylogenetic analyses reveal this group to be paraphyletic. As such, the exclusively extinct subfamily Halitheriinae based on Halitherium is paraphyletic comprising mainly genera that are invariably paraphyletic as well. The focus lies on the type species H. schinzii and the morphological basis for its establishment. The holotype, a single premolar, is considered non-diagnostic, which resulted in the recognition of this taxon name as a nomen dubium. Abundant skeletal material originally assigned to “H. schinzii” is re-described providing new data on the morphology of this sirenian. In this process, the hypothesis of two sympatric morphospecies in the lower Oligocene of Central Europe is corroborated by a suite of distinguishing characters. For the analysis of the interrelationships of the species traditionally assigned to “Halitherium”, and the identification of their phylogenetic position within the order Sirenia, robust cladistic principles are applied. A revised, supplemented and extended data matrix represents the hitherto largest data set on Sirenia based on morphological characters. The phylogenetic analyses show that the “Halitherium” species do not form a monophyletic group. In the course of this systematic and taxonomic revision the “Halitheriinae” are refuted and four new genera are established. Furthermore, a new systematic framework is introduced for Sirenia primarily distinguishing between a paraphyletic stem group and a monophyletic crown group. This study provides new data on the past sirenian diversity and biogeography. The most important results are that one of the most disputed sirenian groups, the “Halitheriinae”, is revised, and that the divergence time of crown group sirenians is estimated as early Oligocene rather than Eocene.