Almost all bacteria contain genes that may lead to their growth stasis and death.Normally, these toxins are believed to be neutralized with their cognate antitoxinsfrom a toxin-antitoxin (TA) operon. These modules are also abundant in pathogenic bacteria suggesting a role for them both in normal bacterial physiology and pathogenicity. Their functions have been subject to intense debates. Due to the cell killing capability of the toxin and the gene silencing capability of the antitoxin, they have been utilized for basic research, biotechnology and medical applications. However, further advancements of these applications have been impeded by our limited knowledge of the biology of TAs. Among these TA systems is the Ibs/Sib (A-E) family. Here, we discuss our efforts in characterizing these systems, with a focus on the IbsC/SibC member. Studying them has shown to not be straightforward due to the complexity of their underlying mechanisms and the current approaches being laborious and lacking sensitivity to be applied to these low abundant molecules. We have developed fluorescence-based platforms to take advantage of sensitive and high throughput and resolution techniques such as Fluorescence Assisted Cell Sorting (FACS) to study these molecules instead of relying on traditional culturing methods. While developing these platforms, we gained insights about the biology and regulation of these molecules. To expand this knowledge, we actively pursued investigating the regulation of these molecules at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, both in their native context and in artificial systems. The rest of this thesis summarizes our efforts in solving one of the biggest pieces of the Ibs/Sib puzzle, namely their physiological expressions. With the strategies we have optimized for specific detection of these low abundance molecules, and the knowledge of their biology and regulation presented, we are now at an exciting phase to interrupt the long pause in the study of functions by these molecules and advancement of TA-based applications. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Almost all bacteria contain genes that may lead to their growth stasis or death. Normally, these toxins are believed to be neutralized with their cognate antitoxins. In spite of the efforts to understand these toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems, their physiological roles are subject to intense debate. These systems are hard to study mainly because 1) they are only activated under specific conditions and 2) they are low in abundance. Current approaches are not high throughput and sensitive enough. In this thesis, we developed DNA constructs, bacterial strains and methodologies to facilitate the study of these molecules, particularly the Ibs-Sib family. We next employed these tools to gain a fundamental knowledge of their expression under different conditions, which revealed surprising information about the function of these molecules. We believe that future studies can greatly benefit from the tools offered here to tremendously enhance our understanding of these systems and lead to useful applications.

The human pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus or GAS) are a versatile Gram-positive cocci that havw shown complex modes of regulation of its different virulence factors. Discoveries of a few small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs) in S. pyogenes and their influence on the expression of virulence factors revealed an important role of sRNAs on S. pyogenes virulence. The genome-wide analysis of bacterial genomes for the discovery of sRNAs through computational methods has become an effective way to discover new sRNAs. In this study we provided a computational scheme where three different algorithms (RNAz, eQRNA, and sRNAPredict) were combined to increase the probabilities of predicting putative sRNAs within S. pyogenes' intergenic regions (IGR). A total of 46 candidates were chosen based on our criteria, and through Northern blot we analyzed each candidate. We obtained hybridization signals from twelve newly discovered sRNAs in S. pyogenes. Subsequently, we analyzed their sequence and their location within the IGR to find a putative -10 promoter region and possible Rho-independent terminator site, and their possible targets through computational methods. We further expanded our analysis of the new sRNAs by using Real-Time RT-PCR to determine the expression of sRNAs during different phases of growth. Our results showed that our computational scheme and experimental method was effective in predicting sRNAs previously undiscovered in S. pyogenes, and that more sRNAs are yet to be discovered and characterized, helping to further understand the regulation of virulence factors in S. pyogenes

The purpose of researching bacterial gene expression is to control and prevent the diseases which are caused by bacteria. Recently researchers discovered small non-coding RNAs (ncRNA / sRNA) perform a variety of critical regulatory functions in bacteria. The genome-wide searching for sRNAs, especially the computational method, has become an effective way to predict the small non-coding RNAs because sRNAs have the consistent sequence characteristics. This article proposes a hybrid computational approach, HybridRNA, for the prediction of small non-coding RNAs, which integrates three critical techniques, including secondary structural algorithm, thermo-dynamic stability analysis and sequence conservation prediction. Relying on these computational techniques, our approach was used to search for sRNAs in Streptococcus pyogenes which is one of the most important bacteria for human health. This search led five strongest candidates of sRNA to be predicted as the key components of known regulatory pathways in S. pyogens.

Parmi les petits ARN non codants, les fragments dérivant d’ARNt (tRF) ont été identifiés dans tous les embranchements de la vie. Cependant, très peu de donnée existe sur les tRF de plantes. Les populations de tRF issues de plusieurs banques de petits ARN (différents tissus, plantes soumises à des stress abiotiques, ou fractions immunoprécipitées avec la protéine ARGONAUTE1) ont été analysées. Les populations sont essentiellement constituées de tRF-5D ou des tRF-3T (clivage dans la boucle D ou T respectivement) et elles varient d’une banque à l’autre. Par une approche in silico suivie de tests de clivage in vitro, des RNases T2 d’A. thaliana (RNS) ont été identifiées comme étant capables de cliver les ARNt dans la région de l’anticodon, de la boucle D et de la boucle T. Lors de l’étude de l’expression des RNS, nous avons observé que deux d’entre elles sont fortement exprimées à un stade de maturation tardif des siliques. Ainsi, la population en tRF issue de stades de développement avancés des siliques a été analysée. Des expériences de carences en phosphate nous ont permis de démontrer l’implication d’une des RNS dans la genèse de tRF dans A. thaliana. Au final, nos données ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives quant à l’implication des RNS et des tRF comme des acteurs majeurs dans l’expression des gènes chez les plantes. / Among the small ncRNAs, tRNA-derived RNA fragments (tRFs) were identified in all domains of life. However, only few data report on plants tRFs. Short tRF were retrieved from A. thaliana small RNA libraries (various tissues, plants submitted to abiotic stress or argonaute immunoprecipitated fractions). Mainly tRF-5D or tRF-3T (cleavage in the D or T region respectively) were found, and fluctuations in the tRF population were observed.Using in vitro approaches, A. thaliana RNase T2 endoribonucleases (RNS) were shown to cleave tRNAs in the anticodon region but also in the D or T region. Through a whole study of RNS expression, we show that two RNS are also strongly expressed in the siliques at a late stage of development. Thus, we analyzed the tRF population of this particular developmental stage. Upon phosphate starvation, we demonstrate also the implication of one RNS in the production of tRFs in planta. Altogether, our data open new perspectives for RNS and tRFs as major actors of gene expression inplants.

Staphylococcus aureus est une bactérie pathogène portée par 30% de la population humaine. Cette bactérie agressive est responsable d'1/5ème des maladies acquises à l’hôpital (infections nosocomiales). Le passage d’un état commensal (portage) à un état infectieux implique le contrôle de l’expression de facteurs de virulence (toxines, adhésines…) ; ce qui nécessite un large arsenal de régulateurs bactériens comprenant des protéines (facteurs de transcription) et des ARN régulateurs (ARNrég). Parmi ces derniers, l’ARN Srn_3610_SprC est impliqué, entre autres, dans la prévention de la phagocytose et dans l’atténuation de la virulence de la bactérie. Or, cet ARN, dont l’expression est habituellement faible, se retrouve fortement exprimé durant les premières minutes de la phagocytose. Le but de cette thèse a été d’identifier les régulateurs transcriptionnels de srn_3610_sprC. SarA, un des facteurs de transcription majeur de S. aureus impliqué dans de nombreuses étapes clé de la virulence (antibiorésistance, formation de biofilm…), a été caractérisé comme le répresseur fort de l’expression de srn_3610_sprC. L’identification du site de fixation de SarA sur le promoteur de ce gène a permis de révéler un second ARNrég, Srn_9340, dont l’expression est également réprimée par SarA. Dans les 2 cas, SarA empêche la fixation de l’ARN polymérase sur leur promoteur, entrainant un faible niveau de transcription. La recherche du signal permettant l’induction de la transcription de ces gènes via le décrochage de SarA est en cours. En parallèle, les données de fixation de SarA sur ces 2 promoteurs ont permis d’identifier de nouvelles cibles de SarA. Nous poursuivrons cette recherche de cibles via une analyse à haut débit par RNASeq. / Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterial pathogen responsible for about 1/5 of health-care associated infections. Nevertheless, 30% of humans are healthy carriers of this bacterium. Switch from commensal to infectious mode requires that virulence factors (toxins, adhesins), involved in S. aureus pathogenicity, are regulated by transcription factors (TF) and small non-coding RNA (sRNA). One of these sRNA, Srn_3610_SprC, has a key-role in prevention of phagocytosis and in attenuation of S. aureus virulence. Whereas srn_3610_sprC is usually poorly expressed, its expression is up-regulated during the first minutes of phagocytosis process. The aim of this thesis was to identify TF regulating srn_3610_sprC expression. We characterized SarA, the main TF of S. aureus, as a repressor of srn_3610_sprC transcription. Following SarA binding site determination, we highlighted a second sRNA (Srn_9340) also transcriptionally repressed by SarA. For both sRNA, SarA prevents RNA polymerase binding on their promoters. The next challenge will be to determine SarA derepression signal allowing high level of sRNAs transcription. Meanwhile, researches on SarA binding sequences allowed us to identify new SarA targets. To better understand SarA functions in S. aureus (antibiotic resistance, biofilm formation), we are now initiating a global study for the determination of SarA targets.

Au cours de ces 10 dernières années une nouvelle classe de petits ARN non-codants nommés "tRNA-derived fragments" (tRFs) a été caractérisée. Tandis que le rôle canonique des tRNA est bien connu, les raisons pour lesquels des fragments de tRNA s'accumulent dans la cellule restent inconnues. Actuellement, peu d'informations sont disponibles sur leurs biogenèses et leurs rôles biologiques, mais les preuves montrant leur importance dans la régulation de l'expression des gènes augmente régulièrement. Cependant, peu de données sont disponibles chez les plantes. A l'aide d’expérience de "deep-sequencing" et de northern blot nous avons confirmé l'existence d'une grande population en tRFs d'origine variée. A la suite de ces observations, trois questions sont établies. Tout d'abord, quelles sont les enzymes responsables de la biogenèse des tRFs. Ensuite, où les tRFs sont générés. Enfin, est-ce que les tRFs sont des sous-produits de la dégradation des tRNA ou ont-ils une fonction biologique? / During the last decade, a new class of small non-coding RNAs called tRNA-derived fragments (tRFs) has emerged. Whilst the canonic role of tRNA is well-known, the reason(s) why stable tRFs remains in the cell is unknown. Indeed, the number of tRFs has rapidly increased in various evolutionary divergent organisms. To date, only few data on their biogenesis and on their biological roles is known but their importance in the regulation of gene expression and in cell life is expanding. In plants, the existence of tRFs has also been reported but only few data are available. Using deep-sequencing on various small RNA libraries from Arabidopsis thaliana and Northern blots experiments, we confirmed the existence of a large but specific population of tRFs. Following these observations, three questions are addressed. First, what are the enzymes responsible for tRFs biogenesis, second where are tRFs generated and third, are tRFs merely degredation by-products or do they have biological functions?

L'étude qu'on a entreprise a pour but d'analyser les facteurs de virulence des espèces "Classiques" et "nouvelles" de Brucella. Dans cette perspective, on a analysé les génomes des espèces récemment découvertes : Brucella inopinata BO1 et Brucella inopinata-like BO2, isolés pour la première fois de patients humains sans réservoir animal connu. On a découvert que ces deux espèces possèdent des profils de restriction uniques. De plus, BO2 possède deux chromosomes de taille identique, un profil jamais décrit pour une autre espèce de Brucella. L'analyse de la réplication intracellulaire de ces deux espèces révèle que BO2 ne se réplique pas dans les macrophages humains et murins alors que BO1 se réplique d'une façon similaire à Brucella suis 1330, ce qui confirme la potentielle implication de BO1 dans la pathogenèse chez l'homme. Sur un autre niveau d'analyse, on a été à la recherche de facteurs de virulence potentiels dans d'autres espèces de Brucella notamment Brucella microti et Brucella suis sur les niveaux génomique et post-transcriptionnel. Sur le niveau génomique, on a découvert que le système GAD (glutamate decarboxylase) confère une résistance à l'acidité à Brucella microti lors de son passage dans l'estomac. Sur le niveau post-transcriptionnel, on a isolé, séquencé et identifié les petits ARNs noncodant associés à la protéine chaperone Hfq, qui joue un rôle important dans la virulence de Brucella. / We have undertaken in this study a multidimensional analysis of the virulence factors of "Classical" and new "Brucella species". In this objective, we have analysed the genomes of newly described species Brucella inopinata BO1 and Brucella inopinata-like BO2 isolated for the first time from human patients with no known animal reservoir. We found that these two species have unique restriction profiles. In addition, BO2 has a unique chromosomal distribution with two chromosomes of the same size, never seen before in Brucella. Analysis of the intracellular replication of these strains reveals that BO2 is unable to replicate in neither human nor mouse macrophages while BO1 successfully entered and replicated as efficiently as Brucella suis 1330 confirming the potential virulence of this species for humans. On an other level of analysis, we looked for potential virulence factors in other Brucella species including Brucella microti and Brucella suis at the genomic and post-transcriptional level. At the genomic level we discovered that the glutamate decarboxylase system confers resistance to acidity to Brucella miroti during its transit in the stomach. On the post-transcriptional level, we isolated, sequenced and identified small noncoding RNAs associated to the chaperone protein Hfq, known to play a role in the virulence of Brucella.